The purpose of this study is to achieve an understanding of how a CE- marking process is conducted and to identify the relevant factors that must be considered in such a process. We have conducted our study at Lövhults Svets & Smide AB (Lövhults) in Skruv, Småland Sweden, which are manufacturing brackets for small covering constructions. To understand how a CE-marking process is conducted several documents and provisions have been reviewed to achieve a basic understanding and insight of the subject. It thus led to that guideline ETAG 015 were studied and the factors to be considered in the CE-marking of brackets were identified. Together with Jan-Åke Johansson at Lövhults we agreed on four different brackets to investigate for a potential CE-marking. When these brackets had been selected a thorough investigation of these products was conducted, which then were compared with the provisions contained within ETAG 015. It states factors regarding the mechanical resistance, fire safety, environment, health, safety and usefulness that are to be considered. These factors should be specified and given a value / explanation which can be determined by European standards, calculation, calculation and testing, or only through testing. These calculations and tests shall be performed by the company or by a notified body. For a CE-marking to be possible to conduct it is mandatory to examine the manufacturing process of the products. Lövhults products are made of steel (Ymagine D1), which is processed in a punching machine, a bending machine, and finally a welding machine. After this processing, the products are sent for galvanizing and after which they are delivered back to Lövhults for dispatch to the customer. A production control procedure must be established and documented to ensure the quality of the manufactured products. The production control that we propose is simple in nature and is based on visual inspection of incoming materials, visual inspection of the work performed at each processing station and finally a visual check of incoming galvanized products. The manufacturing control needs to be approved by a notified body before it can be considered valid. The result of this study is that several correcting actions must be performed and that contact must be taken with a notified body to ensure that Lövhults products meet all the requirements that are demanded and thereby enable the products to receive a CE-marking. We have a discussion at the end of the report, resulting in the final conclusions and recommendations on whether the CE marking of Lövhults products is something that is worth investing in or not. / Denna studies syfte är att uppnå förståelse kring hur en CE-märkningsprocess går till och att kartlägga de faktorer som måste beaktas i en sådan process. Vi har utfört vår studie på Lövhults Svets & Smide AB (Lövhults) i Skruv, Småland, som producerar vinkelbeslag för täckande konstruktioner av mindre storlek. För att ta reda på hur en CE-märkningsprocess går till har ett flertal dokument och bestämmelser studerats för att skapa en grundläggande förståelse och insikt kring ämnet. Det ledde således till att riktlinje ETAG 015 studerades och att de faktorer som skall beaktas vid en CE-märkning av vinkelbeslag identifierades. Vi kom tillsammans med Jan-Åke Johansson på Lövhults överens om att undersöka fyra olika vinkelbeslag för en potentiell CE- märkning. När vinkelbeslagen valts ut genomfördes en noggrann produktgranskning som sedan ställdes mot de bestämmelser som återfinns i ETAG 015. Där utpekas faktorer gällande mekanisk motståndskraft, brandsäkerhet, miljö, hygien, säkerhet och användbarhet som skall beaktas. Dessa faktorer skall specificeras och ges ett värde/förklaring vilket kan fastställas via europeiska standarder, beräkning, beräkning och provning eller enbart via provning. Dessa beräkningar och provningar utförs av företaget eller av ett anmält organ. För att en CE-märkning ska vara möjlig måste även den tillverkningsprocess som produkterna i fråga genomgår granskas. Lövhults produkter tillverkas av stål (Ymagine D1) vilket bearbetas i en stansmaskin, bockningsmaskin och slutligen en svetsmaskin. Efter denna bearbetning skickas produkterna iväg för galvanisering och återkommer sedan till Lövhults för utleverans till kund. En plan för tillverkningskontroll ska upprättas och dokumenteras för att säkerställa kvalitén på de tillverkade produkterna. Den tillverkningskontroll som vi föreslår är av enkel natur och grundar sig på visuell kontroll av inkommande material, visuell kontroll av utfört arbete vid varje bearbetningsstation och slutligen en visuell kontroll inkomna av galvaniserade produkter. En tillverkningskontrollplan ska godkännas av ett anmält organ innan den kan anses giltig. Resultatet av denna undersökning är att ett flertal åtgärder måste vidtas och att kontakt med ett anmält organ måste tas för att Lövhults produkter ska uppfylla kraven som efterfrågas och därmed gå att CE-märka. Vi för en diskussion i slutet av rapporten vilket resulterar i slutsatser och rekommendationer gällande huruvida en CE-märkning av Lövhults produkter är något som är värt att satsa på eller inte. / Detta arbete är utfört som en fallstudie på Lövhults Svets & Smide AB (Lövhults) med intentionen att försöka skapa ett underlag för CE-märkning av de vinkelbeslag som företaget tillverkar. Tillsammans med företaget pekades fyra vinkelbeslag ut som lämpliga kandidater för en potentiell CE-märkning. För att erhålla kunskap och förståelse kring hur en CE-märkning av vinkelbeslag går till studerades dokument, standarder och bestämmelser från Europeiska Unionen vilket slutligen ledde oss till riktlinje ETAG 015. Denna riktlinje innefattar de bestämmelser som man skall förhålla sig till vid en CE- märkning av vinkelbeslag och den fungerar därmed som en teoretisk grundplattform. Utifrån detta dokument identifierades de faktorer som är relevanta att beakta för de fyra utvalda vinkelbeslagen hos Lövhults. En noggrann undersökning och granskning av produkterna genomfördes för att erhålla önskade specifikationer som sedan ställdes sedan mot de utpekade krav som återfinns i ETAG 015 för att kontrolla produkternas överensstämmelse. Analysen av denna jämförelse resulterar i slutsatsen att ett flertal åtgärder måste vidtas på produkterna och att en tillverkningskontroll behöver implementeras. Vidare förs en diskussion kring de för- och nackdelar en CE- märkning innebär av Lövhults vinkelbeslag. Rapporten avslutas med våra rekommendationer som baseras på de presenterade slutsatser som genererats.

ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF GROUP BEHAVIOR ON THE PULL-OUT CAPACITY OF SOIL NAILS IN HIGH PLASTIC CLAY Ak&amp / #56256 / &amp / #56533 / &amp / #56256 / &amp / #56570 / , Ebru Ph. D., Department of Civil Engineering Supervisor : Assoc. Prof. Dr. B. Sad&amp / #56256 / &amp / #56533 / k Bak&amp / #56256 / &amp / #56533 / r Co-Supervisor : Asst. Prof. Dr. M. Tolga Y&amp / #56256 / &amp / #56533 / lmaz September 2009, 161 pages Soil nailing technique is widely used in stabilizing roadway and tunnel portal cut excavations. The key parameter in the design of soil nail systems is the pull-out capacity. The pull-out capacity of the soil nails can be estimated from the studies involving similar soil conditions or can be estimated from the empirical formulas. Field verification tests are performed before the construction stage in order to confirm the parameter chosen in the design of soil nailing system. It is reported in the literature that, the pull-out resistance of a soil nail in sand should be reduced for the nails installed closer than a specific minimum distance, whereas no such requirement have been discussed for nail groups in clays. v In this study, the pull-out resistance of nails in high plastic clay are tested to investigate the influence of nail spacing in group applications. The laboratory set-up for the pull-out tests is composed of an aluminum model box (300mm (w) x 300mm (h) x 500 mm (l)), soil sample, reinforcements, pull-out device, overburden pressure applicator and monitoring device. A series of pull-out tests has been carried out on single nails and group of nails with spacings 2 and 6 times the diameter of a nail in order to observe the group effect on the pullout capacity of the nails. The nails are located into their positions during the placement of clay into the box. Within the limitations of this study, it is observed that, there is a reduction in the pull-out capacity of the central nail in 2&Oslash / spaced group. The pull-out capacity of the central nail in nail group with 6&Oslash / spacing, is not affected from the neighboring nails. In all tests, the plots of pull-out load on nail versus nail displacement show that, the peak value of load is followed by a sharp reduction. The peak pull-out load is mobilized at first few millimeters of the nail displacements. A 3D finite element program is used for numerical analyses of the experiments. The measured pull-out capacity of the soil nails are compared by the results of simulated forces obtained from these analyses. By and large, the agreement between the tests and the numerical analyses is observed to be satisfactory. The details of the numerical models are briefly presented in order to give insight into numerical modeling of soil nails in real applications.

Bei der Behandlung kindlicher Femurfrakturen ist es wichtig die Besonderheiten des kindlichen Knochens zu berücksichtigen. Resultierende Beinlängendifferenzen sowie die psychosoziale Belastung der Kinder stellen Probleme in der Therapie dar. Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es unter Berücksichtigung dieser Aspekte einen Vergleich konservativer und operativer Therapieverfahren im Verlauf der Jahre herzustellen. Zugrunde gelegt wurden die Daten von 210 Kindern und Jugendlichen, die in dem Zeitraum von 1992 bis 2008 in der Universitätsmedizin Göttingen an einer Femurfraktur behandelt wurden. Als komplikationsarmes und kindgerechtes Verfahren hat sich in den letzten Jahren die Elastisch Stabile Intramedulläre Nagelung (ESIN) immer mehr durchgesetzt. Sie stellt mittlerweile bei Kindern über vier Jahren das Verfahren der Wahl dar. Die Verwendung der Plattenosteosynthese und des Fixateur externe hat deutlich abgenommen und sollte nur noch Spezialindikationen vorbehalten sein. Bei Kindern unter vier Jahren kann ebenfalls die ESIN mit guten Ergebnissen verwendet werden. Eine Alternative stellt in dieser Altersgruppe der Beckenbeingips dar. Die Extensionsverfahren werden auf Grund der vielen Nachteile, vor allem in psychosozialer Hinsicht, so gut wie nicht mehr verwendet.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / A chalcona à um complexo fitoterÃpico derivado da aroeira-do-sertÃo (Myracrodruon urundeuva Fr. All.), planta usada popularmente como antiinflamatÃrio e cicatrizante. Avaliaram-se os efeitos anti-sÃpticos e cicatrizantes das chalconas nas feridas e o seu efeito sobre a consolidaÃÃo Ãssea nas fraturas expostas induzidas em ratos. Utilizaram-se ratos Wistar machos adultos, com peso mÃdio de 300g. A fratura foi realizada no fÃmur esquerdo dos animais e exposta por 3h antes de iniciar o tratamento. Os animais foram distribuÃdos ao acaso em dois grupos: o grupo 1 o foco da fratura foi limpo com 100 mL de soro fisiolÃgico 0,9% e o grupo 2, o foco da fratura foi limpo com 100 mL de soro fisiolÃgico 0,9% e 40 mL de chalconas, na concentraÃÃo de 10 mg de chalcona por 1 mL de soluÃÃo salina a 0,9%. Em todos os animais foram realizadas culturas dos focos de fraturas antes de iniciar o tratamento que consistiu na osteosÃntese intramedular com fio de Kirschener de 1 mm de diÃmetro. Foi realizada a avaliaÃÃo clÃnica e radiolÃgica no pÃs-operatÃrio imediato, no 7Â, 14Â, 21 e 28 dias do tratamento. Na avaliaÃÃo clÃnica verificava-se o aspecto da ferida: sinais flogÃsticos, deiscÃncia da ferida, fÃstula e ferida cicatrizada. No primeiro grupo, a cicatrizaÃÃo ocorreu apÃs a 3 semana em 78,9 % dos animais; no segundo grupo, a cicatrizaÃÃo ocorreu a partir da 2 semana em 50 % dos ratos. Em todos os animais ocorreram contaminaÃÃes, sendo o Staphylococcus aureus o microorganismo isolado mais comumente. No primeiro grupo, 80% dos animais perderam a reduÃÃo na segunda semana, e no segundo grupo, 50% dos animais perderam a reduÃÃo na terceira semana. Conclui-se que a chalcona na concentraÃÃo testada nÃo tem efeito na consolidaÃÃo da fratura exposta induzida em rato, porÃm à benÃfica na cicatrizaÃÃo da ferida operatÃria.

[pt] Deformabilidade e estabilidade de taludes em solo grampeado são aspectos relevantes na utilização deste sistema de reforço de taludes naturais ou resultantes de processo de escavação. A concepção do projeto envolve a escolha do comprimento, ângulo de instalação, espaçamento e resistência dos grampos. O dimensionamento, usualmente baseado na teoria do Equilíbrio Limite, não consegue prever deformações no interior da massa grampeada, assim como a redistribuição de esforços nos grampos ao longo das diversas etapas de escavação. Estas informações podem ser obtidas por modelagem computacional com o auxílio do programa FLAC, de forma a definir critérios de projeto para massas grampeadas em solo residual. Para escavações de baixa altura (inferiores a 5m), a razão entre comprimento do grampo e altura da escavação deve ser superior a 0,7 e a razão entre espaçamento vertical e comprimento do grampo inferior a 50%. Para escavações maiores, a razão entre espaçamento vertical e comprimento do grampo deve ser inferior a 25%. Para estas condições não é observada uma configuração de colapso do talude em solo grampeado. O ângulo de rotação da face da escavação é um parâmetro importante no projeto. Adicionalmente verifica-se que uma pequena variação na geometria, condições de contorno, modelo constitutivo e parâmetros do solo e do grampo causam mudanças expressivas nos valores de deslocamento, tensões iniciais e esforços axiais nos grampos. Uma pequena variação da inclinação do talude pode acarretar reduções de até 70% nos deslocamentos finais. Os esforços axiais máximos, mobilizados em cada grampo durante o processo de escavação, são maiores nos taludes mais íngremes. / [en] Deformability and stability of slopes supported by soil nailing are relevant aspects in the utilization of this reinforcement system during excavation. The project concept involves choosing the installation angle, spacing, and resistance of the soil nails. The parameters, usually determined from Limit Equilibrium Theory, cannot predict the deformation of the reinforced mass or the redistribution of stresses on the nails throughout the excavation stages. This information was obtained through computer modeling using the FLAC Program, which defined the performance of soil nailing masses in residual soil. For shallow excavations (H < 5m), the ratio between length and excavation height must be a minimum of 0.7, the ratio between spacing and length up to a maximum of 0.5. For higher excavations, the ratio between spacing and length has to be reduced to 0.25. The rotation angle of the excavation s face is an important parameter. Additionally, small variations in the geometry, boundary conditions, constitutive model, and soil and nail parameters, can cause large changes in the deformations, initial tensions and axial stresses in the nails. Regarding the slope inclination, a small variation can cause reductions of up to 70% in the final deformations. The maximum axial stresses mobilized in each nail during the process of excavation are larger in steeper slopes.

[pt] Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo a implementação de uma ferramenta numérica que contabiliza as inclusões horizontais e subhorizontais na parcela de solo devidamente discretizada por elementos finitos. Este modelo implementa a análise de esforços axiais e cisalhantes solicitados nas interfaces grampo/nata, nata/solo e no próprio aço (grampo) e, também, esforços fletores de um material “equivalente” formado pela combinação das rigidezes do grampo e da nata. Este objetivo é alcançado através da implementação de mais um “pacote” de subrotinas, denominado grampo, no programa DYNREL, desenvolvido no Departamento de Engenharia Civil da PUC-Rio (Figueiredo, 1991). A formulação proposta para contabilizar o efeito das inclusões considera, além dos deslocamentos nodais horizontal e vertical, a influência das rotações no sistema de forças envolvido. A parcela reativa do grampo é calculada iterativamente em função das variáveis primárias obtidas no programa principal para o meio discretizado sem reforço e, assim, acrescida ao vetor de forças internas contrárias. Logo o novo vetor de forças desbalanceadas do sistema incorpora o efeito das inclusões passivas (grampo). O presente trabalho apresenta detalhes da técnica de estruturas grampeadas, do modelo numérico de análise implementado, de exemplos de validação do comportamento das estruturas grampeadas e de exemplos ilustrativos destas estruturas. / [en] The present research has as its main objective the development of a numerical tool capable of simulating the introduction of long structural inclusions in a soil mass discretized by finite elements. Models of the behaviour of the nail/grout system and its interaction with the soil mass were implemented. These models take into account the normal and shear loads transferred at the nail-grout and grout-soil interfaces besides the axial loads and moments acting in the nail itself. The models are able to consider both elastic and inelastic behaviour both at the interfaces and the nail. The proposed models , consisting on a set of subroutines, were implemented in the program DYNREL, developped at the Civil Engineering Department of PUC Rio (Figueiredo,1991). DYNREL is a finite element program which uses dynamic relaxation as the solution algorithm for the equilibrium equations. In the implementation carried out, it is considered that the soil mass is discretized without taking into account the nail. The reactions of the nails are calculated at each time step from the displacements of the elements intercepted by the nails. These displacements are used in the developped subroutines to generate the force reactions from the nails which in turn are transferred back to the finite element mesh for the following time step calculations. The present work presents detais of the implemented models as well as validation and illustrative examples. Conclusions are drawn relative to the numerical implementation carried out and to the results obtained on the analysis of hypothetical nailed retaining structure. / [es] Esta investigación tiene como objetivo principal, el desarrollo de una herramienta numérica capaz de simular la introducción de refuerzos en una masa de suelo discretizada por elementos finitos. Fueron implementados modelos de comportamiento del sistema clavo/nata y sus interacciones con el suelo. Estos modelos consideran las cargas normales y cisallantes que actúan en las interfaces clavo - nata y nata - suelo debido a la acción de momentos y cargas axiales. Los modelos consideran tanto el comportamiento inelástico como el elástico en las interfaces y los clavos. Los modelos propuestos, que consisten en una serie de subrutinas, fueron implementados en el programa DYNREL, desarrollado en el Departamento de Ingeniería Civil de la PUC-Rio (Figueiredo, 1991). O DYNREL es un programa en elementos finitos que utiliza del Relajamiento Dinámico como algoritmo de solución para las ecuaciones de equilibrio. En la implementación se considera una masa de suelo discretizada sin llevar en cuenta el clavo. Las reacciones de los clavos se calculan en cada instante de tiempo por los desplazamientos de los elementos interceptados por los clavos. Estos desplazamientos se utilizan en las subrutinas desarrolladas para generar las fuerzas de reacción de los clavos, que son transferidos nuevamente para la red de elementos finitos para los cálculos en el instante de tiempo siguiente. Este trabajo presenta detalles de los modelos implementados, así como ejemplos de evaluación y aplicación. Se arriban a conclusiones relativas a la implementación numérica y a los resultados obtenidos del análisis de extructuras de contención clavadas hipotéticas.

In the present thesis, studies on the response of soil nail walls subjected to static and seismic conditions using finite element based numerical simulations and the principle of reliability analysis have been performed. The basic methodology constitutes the study of various aspects of soil nail walls such as analyses of important external, internal and facing failure modes, development of axial forces, and displacement observations by considering various typical and prototype cases. For better understanding and presentation, subject matter of the thesis is organised in the following ten chapters. Chapter 1 of the thesis provides an introduction to the soil nailing technique and highlights some of its applications, advantages, and limitations. Chapter 2 provides a detailed review of existing literature on the soil nailing technique. Chapter 3 provides a detailed overview the various methodologies adopted in the thesis for the analyses and response study of the soil nail walls. Chapter 4 deals with the important aspects related to the plane strain finite element based numerical simulations of soil nail walls. In particular, addresses the implications of the use of advanced soil models and the consideration of bending stiffness of soil nails on the overall response of the soil nail walls. Chapter 5 presents finite element simulations based appraisal of the conventional design methodology of soil nail walls, and studies the response of typical soil nail walls under static and seismic conditions. Chapter 6 presents a reliability based study of the important failure modes of soil nail walls subjected to the variability in in-situ soil parameters, and highlights the importance of reliability analysis in context of soil nail walls. Chapter 7 proposes load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methodology in context of soil nail walls, and highlights the need in advancement of the existing conventional design methodology for soil nail walls. Chapter 8 illustrates the use of factorial design of experiment methodology in developing regression models for stability criteria analysis of soil nail walls. Chapter 9 proposes methods for assessing the adequacy of field pullout tests performed in accordance with the prevalent soil nailing guidelines. Further, a reliability based methodology is proposed for the evaluation and various applications of field pullout tests results have been illustrated. Chapter 10 summarises the various studies reported in the thesis and provides a few important conclusions. It is believed that the various studies reported in the thesis contribute to the enhancement of the existing knowledge on soil nailing technique, advancement in the analysis and design methods, and in general, are useful to the soil nailing practice.

Detta examensarbete har gjorts på uppdrag av Skanska Teknik med handledning av Johan Sjödin. Arbetets syfte var att jämföra olika limträförband, utförda av antingen spikningsplåtar eller WT-T skruvar, och komma fram till den bästa lösningen med hänsyn till bärförmåga, kostnad och utförandetid. I ett projekt har de spikningsplåtar, som används vid limträförband, börjat rosta under extremt fuktiga förhållanden fastän spikningsplåtarna är rostfria enligt tillverkaren. En fördel med WT-T skruvar är att de är gömda inne i träet och på så sätt inte i direkt kontakt med den aggressiva miljön, men även skyddad mot brand. Andra fördelar med WT-T är att utförandetiden är kort och kostnaden är lägre än spikningsplåtsalternativet. Ett experiment har gjorts för att undersöka hur träet med inborrade WT-T skruvar beter sig under uttorkning. / This diploma work was made under commission by Skanska Teknik, with guidance by Johan Sjödin. The purpose of this work was to compare different gluelam joints, performed by nailing plates or WT-T screws, and find out the best solution with regard to carrying ability, cost and performance time. In a certain project have the nailing plates, which are used in gluelam joints, corroded under extremely damp circumstances although the nailing plates are rust free according to the manufacturer. An advantage with WT-T screws is that they are hidden inside of the tree and in that way not in directly contact with the aggressive environment, but also protected against fire. The other advantages with WT-T screws are that the performance time is short and the cost is lower than the nailing plates-alternative. An experiment has been carried out to investigate how the tree with WT-T screws behaves itself during drying period.

<p>Detta examensarbete har gjorts på uppdrag av Skanska Teknik med handledning av Johan Sjödin. Arbetets syfte var att jämföra olika limträförband, utförda av antingen spikningsplåtar eller WT-T skruvar, och komma fram till den bästa lösningen med hänsyn till bärförmåga, kostnad och utförandetid. I ett projekt har de spikningsplåtar, som används vid limträförband, börjat rosta under extremt fuktiga förhållanden fastän spikningsplåtarna är rostfria enligt tillverkaren. En fördel med WT-T skruvar är att de är gömda inne i träet och på så sätt inte i direkt kontakt med den aggressiva miljön, men även skyddad mot brand. Andra fördelar med WT-T är att utförandetiden är kort och kostnaden är lägre än spikningsplåtsalternativet. Ett experiment har gjorts för att undersöka hur träet med inborrade WT-T skruvar beter sig under uttorkning.</p> / <p>This diploma work was made under commission by Skanska Teknik, with guidance by Johan Sjödin. The purpose of this work was to compare different gluelam joints, performed by nailing plates or WT-T screws, and find out the best solution with regard to carrying ability, cost and performance time. In a certain project have the nailing plates, which are used in gluelam joints, corroded under extremely damp circumstances although the nailing plates are rust free according to the manufacturer. An advantage with WT-T screws is that they are hidden inside of the tree and in that way not in directly contact with the aggressive environment, but also protected against fire. The other advantages with WT-T screws are that the performance time is short and the cost is lower than the nailing plates-alternative. An experiment has been carried out to investigate how the tree with WT-T screws behaves itself during drying period.</p>

The diploma thesis deals with the construction project of the new building of the primary school in Bobrová. The main goal of the thesis is to propose a suitable implementation procedure in relation to the specific place of the site. The thesis deals with the time schedule of the main object, itemized budget, major building machines and mechanisms, project of site equipment, study of the construction realization, material resources plan, technical report, time schedule and financial plan of the main object and also with the situation of the construction. It focuses in detail on the stage of earthworks, including the reinforcement of the walls of the building pit using soil nailing. For this stage a technological regulation and a control and test plan have been developed.