Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biochemistry / John M. Tomich / Peptide-based delivery systems show great potential as safer drug delivery vehicles. They overcome problems associated with lipid-based or viral delivery systems, vis-a-vis stability, specificity, inflammation, antigenicity, and tune-ability. We have designed and synthesized a set of 15 and 23-residue branched, amphiphilic peptides that mimic phosphoglycerides in molecular architecture. They undergo supramolecular self-assembly and form solvent-filled, bilayer delineated spheres with 50-150 nm diameters (confirmed by TEM and DLS). Whereas weak hydrophobic forces drive and sustain lipid bilayer assemblies, these structures are further stabilized by β-sheet hydrogen bonding and are stable at very low concentrations and even in the presence of SDS, urea and trypsin as confirmed by circular dichroism spectroscopy. Given sufficient time, they fuse together to form larger assemblies and trap compounds of different sizes within the enclosed space. They are prepared using a protocol that is similar to preparing lipid vesicles. We have shown that different concentrations of the fluorescent dye, 5(6)-Carboxyfluorescein can be encapsulated in these assemblies and delivered into human lens epithelial cells and MCF-7 cells grown on coverslips. Besides fluorescent dyes, we have delivered the plasmid (EGFP-N3, 4.7kb) into N/N 1003A lens epithelial cells and observed expression of EGFP (in the presence and absence of a selection media). In the case of large molecules like DNA, these assemblies act as nanoparticles and offer some protection to DNA against certain nucleases. Linear peptides that lacked a branching point and other branched peptides with their sequences randomized did not show any of the lipid-like properties exhibited by the branched peptides. The peptides can be chemically decorated with target specific sequences for use as DDS for targeted delivery.

Excessive release of syncytiotrophoblast vesicles (STBM) from the placenta into the maternal circulation may cause the inflammatory response, endothelial dysfunction and activation of the coagulation system characteristic of pre-eclampsia (PE). Consequently, other cell types including platelets, leukocytes, red blood cells (RBC) and endothelium may be activated to release cellular vesicles which exacerbate the disease. This thesis aimed to develop methodology for enumerating and phenotyping STBM and the other vesicle types to determine whether they could be used as biomarkers for PE. In vitro derived STBM and vesicles from the other cells of the vascular compartment were examined to select a suitable panel of antibodies to analyse these same vesicle types in plasma samples from non-pregnant (NonP), normal pregnant (NormP) and PE women. Our flow cytometer was shown to detect microvesicles ≥290nm, hence smaller nanovesicles and exosomes could not be detected by this method. Therefore, a novel technique for analysing both microvesicles and nanovesicles, Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA), was explored and was found to be able to detect vesicles as small as 70nm. The origins of the vesicles that change in pregnancy are not yet known. Flow cytometry and NTA were used in parallel to determine the size, number and phenotype of STBM and other cellular vesicles in NonP, NormP and PE women. Flow cytometry showed that majority of vesicles were derived from platelets, followed by RBC vesicles, leukocyte vesicles and STBM. NTA showed that the total number of vesicles in plasma was significantly elevated in NormP and late-onset PE women compared to NonP controls, and the vesicles were smaller in size. Similarly, flow cytometry showed differences in the composition of vesicles between pregnant and non-pregnant women, demonstrating that pregnancy affects vesicle release. However, no differences were found between NormP and PE women. This was probably due to the majority of samples studied being from late rather than early-onset PE. Thus, although this is the most comprehensive analysis of circulating vesicles in pregnancy to date, their use as biomarkers for PE remains an open question.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a restrictive interface located between the blood circulation and the central nervous system (CNS), regulating the homeostatic environment of the neuronal milieu, by controlling the permeability of the cerebrovasculature. Currently, we cannot fully comprehend the regulatory features and the complexity of BBB morphology to allow for intervention clinically. The thesis consists of four publications. The methodology paper proposes a novel experimental design to visualize the morphological architecture of immortalized mouse brain endothelial cell lines (bEnd3/bEnd5). The brain endothelial cells (BECs) were grown on cellulose matrices and fixed in 2.5 % glutaraldehyde in preparation for visualization of the paracellular (PC) spaces between adjacent BECs, employing high-resolution electron microscopy (HREM), with vested interest in the morphological profile of the developing BEC.

Doctor Scientiae / The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a restrictive interface located between the blood circulation and the central nervous system (CNS), regulating the homeostatic environment of the neuronal milieu, by controlling the permeability of the cerebrovasculature. Currently, we cannot fully comprehend the regulatory features and the complexity of BBB morphology to allow for intervention clinically. The thesis consists of four publications. The methodology paper proposes a novel experimental design to visualize the morphological architecture of immortalized mouse brain endothelial cell lines (bEnd3/bEnd5). The brain endothelial cells (BECs) were grown on cellulose matrices and fixed in 2.5 % glutaraldehyde in preparation for visualization of the paracellular (PC) spaces between adjacent BECs, employing high-resolution electron microscopy (HREM), with vested interest in the morphological profile of the developing BEC. The second publication addresses and reports on the nanosized detail of BEC monolayer morphology utilizing high-resolution scanning electron microscopy (HR-SEM) and published the first descriptions of the extrusion of a basement membrane from developing in vitro BECs. Moreover, we categorized and discussed two types of nanotubule (NT) development specific for the establishment of the BEC monolayers. NTs can occur via nanovesicle extrusion onto the BEC membrane surfaces, which fuse, forming tunneling NTs (TUNTs) between adjacent BECs. Furthermore, cytoplasmic extensions of BEC membrane leading edges give rise to tethering NT (TENTs), which result in overlapping regions across the PC spaces, resulting in PC occlusion. BEC NT communication is illuminated in a third publication utilizing immunofluorescence microscopy, which reports on the molecular, cytoskeletal elements governing NT formation. This study shows, for the first time, f-actin and α-tubulin cytoskeletal proteins extending between the soma of the cells and NT cytoskeletal structures within an in vitro BBB model. Thereafter, the effects depolymerizing agents, Cytochalasin D and Nocodazole, were investigated on f-actin and α-tubulin cytoskeletal protein generation,functionality of NT morphology, cell division and permeability. For the first time, we show that f-actin possesses an additional function, key to tight junction, plaque protein organization. Moreover, it facilitates TENT formation, essential for cytoplasmic projection across PC spaces. Conversely, α-tubulin facilitates known functions: (i) transportation, (ii) cytokinesis, (iii) cellular division, and (iv) possesses a novel function as the molecular cytoskeletal backbone of TENTs, which facilitates BBB impermeability. A critical review evaluates past literature, in light of the current findings emanating from this study. The review critiques the concept of BEC cilia, which have been reported in the literature, comprised of tubulin and actin, but at low-resolution. In the light of our novel observations, nowhere in transmission electron microscopy do we observe cilia on the BECs, we postulate that NTs have been misnamed and mischaracterized as cilia. The thesis endeavors to elucidate the complexity of BEC nanostructures by examining the emerging role of the nanoscopic landscape of BBB development and the changing nature of BEC morphology, NT formation and associated cytoarchitectural underpinnings governing NT morphology. The research study attempts to, with a view to create new avenues for treating brain pathology, revolutionize our interpretation of barrier-genesis on a nanoscale.

Purpose: Developing new and efficient approaches for the early diagnosis of colorectal cancer (CRC) is an important issue. Circulating extracellular nanovesicles (ENVs) present a promising class of cancer markers. Cells of well-differentiated adenocarcinomas retain the molecular characteristics of colon epithelial cells, and the ENVs secreted by these cells may have colon-specific surface markers. We hypothesize that an increase in the number of ENVs carrying colon-specific markers could serve as a diagnostic criterion for colorectal cancer. Experimental design: Potential colon-specific markers were selected based on tissue-specific expression profile and cell surface membrane localization data. Plasma was collected from CRC patients (n = 48) and healthy donors (n = 50). The total population of ENVs was isolated with a two-phase polymer system. ENVs derived from colon epithelium cells were isolated using immune-beads with antibodies to colon-specific markers prior to labelling with antibodies against exosomal tetraspanins (CD63 and CD9) and quantification by flow cytometry. Results: The number of ENVs positive for single colon cancer markers was found to be significantly higher in the plasma of CRC patients compared with healthy donors. The efficacy of detection depends on the method of ENV labelling. The diagnostic efficacy was estimated by ROC analysis (the AUC varied between 0.71 and 0.79). The multiplexed isolation of colon-derived ENVs using immune-beads decorated with antibodies against five markers allowed for a further increase in the diagnostic potency of the method (AUC = 0.82). Conclusions: ENVs derived from colon epithelium may serve as markers of differentiated CRC (adenocarcinomas). The composition of ligands used for capturing colon-derived ENVs and their method of labelling are critical for the efficacy of this proposed diagnostic approach.

Objetivos: Sistemas nanoparticulados são úteis para modular a farmacocinética de substâncias. Nesse contexto, os objetivos deste trabalho foram o desenvolvimento de um sistema nanovesicular (NV) inovador auto-organizado de quitosana e lecitina, contendo miristato de isopropila (IPM) como núcleo oleoso capaz de alterar a farmacocinética da clozapina (CZP) e do ácido valpróico (VPA). Métodos: NV foram preparadas através da mistura, utilizando Ultraturrax, de uma solução etanólica contendo Lipoid S45® e IPM em uma solução aquosa de quitosana. As concentrações de quitosana (4 ou 8 mg/ml), IPM (10 e 20 mg/mL), Lipoid S45® (4 e 8 mg/ml) foram otimizadas através de um fatorial 23 que avaliou o diâmetro, potencial zeta, pH, viscosidade e análises de retroespalhamento de luz (BS) como respostas. Às nanovesículas do sistema otimizado pela análise fatorial foi incluído a CZP. A caracterização físico-química dessa formulação (NV-CZP) foi conduzida avaliandose os mesmos parâmetros citados acima. A farmacocinética dessa formulação foi avaliada em ratos Wistar pela via i.v (5 mg/kg, CZP livre) e oral (10 mg/kg, CZP livre e NV-CZP). Para a quantificação da CZP nas amostras de plasma obtidas em tempos pré-determinados após adminsitração das formulações um método analítico por CL-EM/EM foi desenvolvido e validado. O VPA também foi encapsulado nessas nanovesículas, nesse caso em substituição ao IPM, formando NV-VPA que foram caracterizadas físico-quimicamente. Os perfis cinéticos dessa formulação foram avaliados para os seguintes grupos de animais: VPA, ratos anestesiados (G1, 4 mg/kg) e não-anestesiados (G2, 4 mg/kg), VPA-NV (G3, 2 mg/kg), oral 4 mg/kg VPA (G4) e VPA-NV (G5), além da administração intra-traqueal (i.t.) de 4 mg/kg (VPA, G6 e VPA-NV, G7). Avaliação não-compartimental e compartimental dos perfis individuais de concentração plasmática da CZP e VPA foi realizada utilizando Excel® 2003 e Scientist® 2.0, respectivamente. Resultados: Os diâmetros das partículas no planejamento fatorial variaram de 0.348 a 1.5 μm. O diâmetro foi dependente da proporção de quitosana, IPM e lecitina utilizados nas formulações O potencial zeta positivo (+41.3 a +50 mV) foi influenciado principalmente pela concentração de quitosana. O pH de todas as formulações foi ácido. Os valores de viscosidade sofreram influência das concentrações de quitosana e IPM. A formulação otimizada (quitosana 4 mg/mL; IPM 10 mg/mL e Lipoid S45® 8 mg/mL) foi escolhida para encapsular a CZP. As nanovesículas de CZP (CZP-NV 1 mg/mL) e NV brancas apresentaram, respectivamente, tamanhos médios de 181 ± 3 nm e 470 ± 2 nm, pH ácido, potencial zeta positivo, índice de polidispersão abaixo de 0.3 e doseamento da CZP próximo a 100%. Após a encapsulação da CZP em NV, a biodisponibilidade oral foi 24%, duas vezes superior a biodisponibilidade da CZP livre (9%). Aumento na meia-vida foi observado para a CZP-NV (4.32 ± 1.33 h) em relação à CZP livre (2.28 ± 0.69 h), devido a uma diminuição da depuração plasmática. No estudo com VPA, o tamanho médio, potencial zeta e pH para VPA-NV (5 mg/mL) e NV brancas foram 333 ± 1.5 nm e 131 ±1 nm; 25.6 ± 0.8 mV e +13.4 ± 1.7 mV; 2.69 ± 0.02 e 2.71 ± 0.08, respectivamente. Os perfis plasmáticos dos grupos G1, G2, G3 declinaram de forma bi-exponencial. A depuração plasmática e o volume de distribuição no steady-state do G5 diminuíram significativamente e na mesma proporção em relação ao G4. A meia-vida não se alterou para o G4 e G5. O pico de concentração plasmática (Cmax) foi significativamente maior para G7 do que para G6 e o tempo para alcançar o pico (tmax) foi menor para o G6. A depuração plasmática e o volume de distribuição no steady-state do G7 diminuíram significativamente e na mesma proporção em relação ao grupo G6, não implicando em alteração na meia-vida do fármaco. Conclusões: Neste trabalho, um novo nanossistema vesicular foi desenvolvido e biologicamente avaliado. As nanovesículas mostraram-se úteis para melhor os parâmetros farmacocinéticos do VPA e da CZP, principalmente a biodisponibilidade oral, sendo promissoras para diferentes aplicações biológicas e tecnológicas. / Objectives: Nanoparticles (NP) are useful to modulate the pharmacokinetics (PK) of drugs. The aim of this study was to develop innovative self-assembly nanovesicles (NV) constituted of chitosan and lecithin with isopropyl myristate (IPM) as oil core, able to modify the PK plasma profile of clozapine (CZP) and valproic acid (VPA). Methods: The NV were obtained by injecting 4 mL of an ethanolic phase containing Lipoid S45® and IPM into 46 ml of a chitosan aqueous solution followed by Ultraturrax homogenization. The concentrations of chitosan (4 and 8 mg/mL), IPM (10 e 20 mg/mL) and Lipoid S45® (4 and 8 mg/mL) were optimized using a 23 factorial design. The responses evaluated were particle size, zeta potential, pH, viscosity and backscattering (BS) analysis. The optimized formulation (F2) was choosed to encapsulate CZP. The PK in rats was evaluated after i.v. (5 mg/kg, free CZP) and oral (10 mg/kg, free and NV-CZP) administration. A LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for CZP quantification in rat plasma. VPA was also incorporate into the NV in this case replacing IPM by the drug. The NV-VPA physicochemical characterization and plasma PK was evaluated. The groups for PK investigation were: VPA unconscious rat (G1, 4 mg/kg) and conscious rat (G2, 4 mg/kg), VPA-NV (G3, 2 mg/kg), oral 4 mg/kg dosing of VPA (G4) and VPA-NV (G5) and intratracheal (i.t.) 4 mg/kg VPA (G6) and VPA-NV (G7) administration. Noncompartmental and compartmental analyses were performed using Excel® 2003 and Scientist® 2.0, respectively. Results: The particle size ranged 0.348 to 1.5 μm. This response was dependent on the proportion of chitosan, IPM, and Lipoid S45® used. The analysis of laser diffractometry showed only one particle size population for all formulations, mainly below 1 μm. The zeta potential was strongly positive (+41.3 to +50 mV) and it was influenced by chitosan, mainly. The formulations pH was acid. The viscosity was dependent on chitosan and IPM concentration. The F2 (chitosan 4 mg/mL; IPM 10 mg/mL and Lipoid S45® 8 mg/mL) was choosed to incorporate CZP. The CZP-NV (1 mg/mL) and blank-NV (unloaded) presented mean particle sizes of 181 ± 3 nm and 470 ± 2 nm, respectively, acid pH, positive zeta potentials, PDI below 0.3 and drug content close to 100%. CZP oral bioavailability after encapsulation into NV was 24%, twice the oral value observed for CZP in solution (9%). An increase in half-life was observed for CZP-NV (4.32 ± 1.33 h) in relation to free CZP (2.28 ± 0.68 h), due to the decrease in total clearance (a = 0.05). In the study with VPA, the mean diameter, zeta potential and pH of VPA-NV (5 mg/mL) and blank-NV were 333 ±1.5 nm and 131 ±1 nm; 25.6 ± 0.8 mV and +13.4 ± 1.7 mV; 2.69 ± 0.02 and 2.71 ± 0.08, respectively. The plasma profiles of G1, G2, and G3 declined in a bi-exponential fashion. G5 total clearance and volume of distribution at steady state were significantly decreased in relation to G4 (a = 0.05) and the half-life was not altered. The peak plasma concentration (Cmax) was significantly higher in the G7 group than G6, and the peak time (tmax) took place earlier after administration of G6. G7 clearance and volume of distribution at steady state were both significantly decreased in the same proportion in relation to G6 (a = 0.05), not altering the halflife. Conclusions: In this work a new nanovesicular system was developed and biologically evaluated. The system showed to be useful to improve VPA and CZP pharmacokinetics. The nanovesicles have potential for application for different biological and technological uses.

Objetivos: Sistemas nanoparticulados são úteis para modular a farmacocinética de substâncias. Nesse contexto, os objetivos deste trabalho foram o desenvolvimento de um sistema nanovesicular (NV) inovador auto-organizado de quitosana e lecitina, contendo miristato de isopropila (IPM) como núcleo oleoso capaz de alterar a farmacocinética da clozapina (CZP) e do ácido valpróico (VPA). Métodos: NV foram preparadas através da mistura, utilizando Ultraturrax, de uma solução etanólica contendo Lipoid S45® e IPM em uma solução aquosa de quitosana. As concentrações de quitosana (4 ou 8 mg/ml), IPM (10 e 20 mg/mL), Lipoid S45® (4 e 8 mg/ml) foram otimizadas através de um fatorial 23 que avaliou o diâmetro, potencial zeta, pH, viscosidade e análises de retroespalhamento de luz (BS) como respostas. Às nanovesículas do sistema otimizado pela análise fatorial foi incluído a CZP. A caracterização físico-química dessa formulação (NV-CZP) foi conduzida avaliandose os mesmos parâmetros citados acima. A farmacocinética dessa formulação foi avaliada em ratos Wistar pela via i.v (5 mg/kg, CZP livre) e oral (10 mg/kg, CZP livre e NV-CZP). Para a quantificação da CZP nas amostras de plasma obtidas em tempos pré-determinados após adminsitração das formulações um método analítico por CL-EM/EM foi desenvolvido e validado. O VPA também foi encapsulado nessas nanovesículas, nesse caso em substituição ao IPM, formando NV-VPA que foram caracterizadas físico-quimicamente. Os perfis cinéticos dessa formulação foram avaliados para os seguintes grupos de animais: VPA, ratos anestesiados (G1, 4 mg/kg) e não-anestesiados (G2, 4 mg/kg), VPA-NV (G3, 2 mg/kg), oral 4 mg/kg VPA (G4) e VPA-NV (G5), além da administração intra-traqueal (i.t.) de 4 mg/kg (VPA, G6 e VPA-NV, G7). Avaliação não-compartimental e compartimental dos perfis individuais de concentração plasmática da CZP e VPA foi realizada utilizando Excel® 2003 e Scientist® 2.0, respectivamente. Resultados: Os diâmetros das partículas no planejamento fatorial variaram de 0.348 a 1.5 μm. O diâmetro foi dependente da proporção de quitosana, IPM e lecitina utilizados nas formulações O potencial zeta positivo (+41.3 a +50 mV) foi influenciado principalmente pela concentração de quitosana. O pH de todas as formulações foi ácido. Os valores de viscosidade sofreram influência das concentrações de quitosana e IPM. A formulação otimizada (quitosana 4 mg/mL; IPM 10 mg/mL e Lipoid S45® 8 mg/mL) foi escolhida para encapsular a CZP. As nanovesículas de CZP (CZP-NV 1 mg/mL) e NV brancas apresentaram, respectivamente, tamanhos médios de 181 ± 3 nm e 470 ± 2 nm, pH ácido, potencial zeta positivo, índice de polidispersão abaixo de 0.3 e doseamento da CZP próximo a 100%. Após a encapsulação da CZP em NV, a biodisponibilidade oral foi 24%, duas vezes superior a biodisponibilidade da CZP livre (9%). Aumento na meia-vida foi observado para a CZP-NV (4.32 ± 1.33 h) em relação à CZP livre (2.28 ± 0.69 h), devido a uma diminuição da depuração plasmática. No estudo com VPA, o tamanho médio, potencial zeta e pH para VPA-NV (5 mg/mL) e NV brancas foram 333 ± 1.5 nm e 131 ±1 nm; 25.6 ± 0.8 mV e +13.4 ± 1.7 mV; 2.69 ± 0.02 e 2.71 ± 0.08, respectivamente. Os perfis plasmáticos dos grupos G1, G2, G3 declinaram de forma bi-exponencial. A depuração plasmática e o volume de distribuição no steady-state do G5 diminuíram significativamente e na mesma proporção em relação ao G4. A meia-vida não se alterou para o G4 e G5. O pico de concentração plasmática (Cmax) foi significativamente maior para G7 do que para G6 e o tempo para alcançar o pico (tmax) foi menor para o G6. A depuração plasmática e o volume de distribuição no steady-state do G7 diminuíram significativamente e na mesma proporção em relação ao grupo G6, não implicando em alteração na meia-vida do fármaco. Conclusões: Neste trabalho, um novo nanossistema vesicular foi desenvolvido e biologicamente avaliado. As nanovesículas mostraram-se úteis para melhor os parâmetros farmacocinéticos do VPA e da CZP, principalmente a biodisponibilidade oral, sendo promissoras para diferentes aplicações biológicas e tecnológicas. / Objectives: Nanoparticles (NP) are useful to modulate the pharmacokinetics (PK) of drugs. The aim of this study was to develop innovative self-assembly nanovesicles (NV) constituted of chitosan and lecithin with isopropyl myristate (IPM) as oil core, able to modify the PK plasma profile of clozapine (CZP) and valproic acid (VPA). Methods: The NV were obtained by injecting 4 mL of an ethanolic phase containing Lipoid S45® and IPM into 46 ml of a chitosan aqueous solution followed by Ultraturrax homogenization. The concentrations of chitosan (4 and 8 mg/mL), IPM (10 e 20 mg/mL) and Lipoid S45® (4 and 8 mg/mL) were optimized using a 23 factorial design. The responses evaluated were particle size, zeta potential, pH, viscosity and backscattering (BS) analysis. The optimized formulation (F2) was choosed to encapsulate CZP. The PK in rats was evaluated after i.v. (5 mg/kg, free CZP) and oral (10 mg/kg, free and NV-CZP) administration. A LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for CZP quantification in rat plasma. VPA was also incorporate into the NV in this case replacing IPM by the drug. The NV-VPA physicochemical characterization and plasma PK was evaluated. The groups for PK investigation were: VPA unconscious rat (G1, 4 mg/kg) and conscious rat (G2, 4 mg/kg), VPA-NV (G3, 2 mg/kg), oral 4 mg/kg dosing of VPA (G4) and VPA-NV (G5) and intratracheal (i.t.) 4 mg/kg VPA (G6) and VPA-NV (G7) administration. Noncompartmental and compartmental analyses were performed using Excel® 2003 and Scientist® 2.0, respectively. Results: The particle size ranged 0.348 to 1.5 μm. This response was dependent on the proportion of chitosan, IPM, and Lipoid S45® used. The analysis of laser diffractometry showed only one particle size population for all formulations, mainly below 1 μm. The zeta potential was strongly positive (+41.3 to +50 mV) and it was influenced by chitosan, mainly. The formulations pH was acid. The viscosity was dependent on chitosan and IPM concentration. The F2 (chitosan 4 mg/mL; IPM 10 mg/mL and Lipoid S45® 8 mg/mL) was choosed to incorporate CZP. The CZP-NV (1 mg/mL) and blank-NV (unloaded) presented mean particle sizes of 181 ± 3 nm and 470 ± 2 nm, respectively, acid pH, positive zeta potentials, PDI below 0.3 and drug content close to 100%. CZP oral bioavailability after encapsulation into NV was 24%, twice the oral value observed for CZP in solution (9%). An increase in half-life was observed for CZP-NV (4.32 ± 1.33 h) in relation to free CZP (2.28 ± 0.68 h), due to the decrease in total clearance (a = 0.05). In the study with VPA, the mean diameter, zeta potential and pH of VPA-NV (5 mg/mL) and blank-NV were 333 ±1.5 nm and 131 ±1 nm; 25.6 ± 0.8 mV and +13.4 ± 1.7 mV; 2.69 ± 0.02 and 2.71 ± 0.08, respectively. The plasma profiles of G1, G2, and G3 declined in a bi-exponential fashion. G5 total clearance and volume of distribution at steady state were significantly decreased in relation to G4 (a = 0.05) and the half-life was not altered. The peak plasma concentration (Cmax) was significantly higher in the G7 group than G6, and the peak time (tmax) took place earlier after administration of G6. G7 clearance and volume of distribution at steady state were both significantly decreased in the same proportion in relation to G6 (a = 0.05), not altering the halflife. Conclusions: In this work a new nanovesicular system was developed and biologically evaluated. The system showed to be useful to improve VPA and CZP pharmacokinetics. The nanovesicles have potential for application for different biological and technological uses.

Objetivos: Sistemas nanoparticulados são úteis para modular a farmacocinética de substâncias. Nesse contexto, os objetivos deste trabalho foram o desenvolvimento de um sistema nanovesicular (NV) inovador auto-organizado de quitosana e lecitina, contendo miristato de isopropila (IPM) como núcleo oleoso capaz de alterar a farmacocinética da clozapina (CZP) e do ácido valpróico (VPA). Métodos: NV foram preparadas através da mistura, utilizando Ultraturrax, de uma solução etanólica contendo Lipoid S45® e IPM em uma solução aquosa de quitosana. As concentrações de quitosana (4 ou 8 mg/ml), IPM (10 e 20 mg/mL), Lipoid S45® (4 e 8 mg/ml) foram otimizadas através de um fatorial 23 que avaliou o diâmetro, potencial zeta, pH, viscosidade e análises de retroespalhamento de luz (BS) como respostas. Às nanovesículas do sistema otimizado pela análise fatorial foi incluído a CZP. A caracterização físico-química dessa formulação (NV-CZP) foi conduzida avaliandose os mesmos parâmetros citados acima. A farmacocinética dessa formulação foi avaliada em ratos Wistar pela via i.v (5 mg/kg, CZP livre) e oral (10 mg/kg, CZP livre e NV-CZP). Para a quantificação da CZP nas amostras de plasma obtidas em tempos pré-determinados após adminsitração das formulações um método analítico por CL-EM/EM foi desenvolvido e validado. O VPA também foi encapsulado nessas nanovesículas, nesse caso em substituição ao IPM, formando NV-VPA que foram caracterizadas físico-quimicamente. Os perfis cinéticos dessa formulação foram avaliados para os seguintes grupos de animais: VPA, ratos anestesiados (G1, 4 mg/kg) e não-anestesiados (G2, 4 mg/kg), VPA-NV (G3, 2 mg/kg), oral 4 mg/kg VPA (G4) e VPA-NV (G5), além da administração intra-traqueal (i.t.) de 4 mg/kg (VPA, G6 e VPA-NV, G7). Avaliação não-compartimental e compartimental dos perfis individuais de concentração plasmática da CZP e VPA foi realizada utilizando Excel® 2003 e Scientist® 2.0, respectivamente. Resultados: Os diâmetros das partículas no planejamento fatorial variaram de 0.348 a 1.5 μm. O diâmetro foi dependente da proporção de quitosana, IPM e lecitina utilizados nas formulações O potencial zeta positivo (+41.3 a +50 mV) foi influenciado principalmente pela concentração de quitosana. O pH de todas as formulações foi ácido. Os valores de viscosidade sofreram influência das concentrações de quitosana e IPM. A formulação otimizada (quitosana 4 mg/mL; IPM 10 mg/mL e Lipoid S45® 8 mg/mL) foi escolhida para encapsular a CZP. As nanovesículas de CZP (CZP-NV 1 mg/mL) e NV brancas apresentaram, respectivamente, tamanhos médios de 181 ± 3 nm e 470 ± 2 nm, pH ácido, potencial zeta positivo, índice de polidispersão abaixo de 0.3 e doseamento da CZP próximo a 100%. Após a encapsulação da CZP em NV, a biodisponibilidade oral foi 24%, duas vezes superior a biodisponibilidade da CZP livre (9%). Aumento na meia-vida foi observado para a CZP-NV (4.32 ± 1.33 h) em relação à CZP livre (2.28 ± 0.69 h), devido a uma diminuição da depuração plasmática. No estudo com VPA, o tamanho médio, potencial zeta e pH para VPA-NV (5 mg/mL) e NV brancas foram 333 ± 1.5 nm e 131 ±1 nm; 25.6 ± 0.8 mV e +13.4 ± 1.7 mV; 2.69 ± 0.02 e 2.71 ± 0.08, respectivamente. Os perfis plasmáticos dos grupos G1, G2, G3 declinaram de forma bi-exponencial. A depuração plasmática e o volume de distribuição no steady-state do G5 diminuíram significativamente e na mesma proporção em relação ao G4. A meia-vida não se alterou para o G4 e G5. O pico de concentração plasmática (Cmax) foi significativamente maior para G7 do que para G6 e o tempo para alcançar o pico (tmax) foi menor para o G6. A depuração plasmática e o volume de distribuição no steady-state do G7 diminuíram significativamente e na mesma proporção em relação ao grupo G6, não implicando em alteração na meia-vida do fármaco. Conclusões: Neste trabalho, um novo nanossistema vesicular foi desenvolvido e biologicamente avaliado. As nanovesículas mostraram-se úteis para melhor os parâmetros farmacocinéticos do VPA e da CZP, principalmente a biodisponibilidade oral, sendo promissoras para diferentes aplicações biológicas e tecnológicas. / Objectives: Nanoparticles (NP) are useful to modulate the pharmacokinetics (PK) of drugs. The aim of this study was to develop innovative self-assembly nanovesicles (NV) constituted of chitosan and lecithin with isopropyl myristate (IPM) as oil core, able to modify the PK plasma profile of clozapine (CZP) and valproic acid (VPA). Methods: The NV were obtained by injecting 4 mL of an ethanolic phase containing Lipoid S45® and IPM into 46 ml of a chitosan aqueous solution followed by Ultraturrax homogenization. The concentrations of chitosan (4 and 8 mg/mL), IPM (10 e 20 mg/mL) and Lipoid S45® (4 and 8 mg/mL) were optimized using a 23 factorial design. The responses evaluated were particle size, zeta potential, pH, viscosity and backscattering (BS) analysis. The optimized formulation (F2) was choosed to encapsulate CZP. The PK in rats was evaluated after i.v. (5 mg/kg, free CZP) and oral (10 mg/kg, free and NV-CZP) administration. A LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for CZP quantification in rat plasma. VPA was also incorporate into the NV in this case replacing IPM by the drug. The NV-VPA physicochemical characterization and plasma PK was evaluated. The groups for PK investigation were: VPA unconscious rat (G1, 4 mg/kg) and conscious rat (G2, 4 mg/kg), VPA-NV (G3, 2 mg/kg), oral 4 mg/kg dosing of VPA (G4) and VPA-NV (G5) and intratracheal (i.t.) 4 mg/kg VPA (G6) and VPA-NV (G7) administration. Noncompartmental and compartmental analyses were performed using Excel® 2003 and Scientist® 2.0, respectively. Results: The particle size ranged 0.348 to 1.5 μm. This response was dependent on the proportion of chitosan, IPM, and Lipoid S45® used. The analysis of laser diffractometry showed only one particle size population for all formulations, mainly below 1 μm. The zeta potential was strongly positive (+41.3 to +50 mV) and it was influenced by chitosan, mainly. The formulations pH was acid. The viscosity was dependent on chitosan and IPM concentration. The F2 (chitosan 4 mg/mL; IPM 10 mg/mL and Lipoid S45® 8 mg/mL) was choosed to incorporate CZP. The CZP-NV (1 mg/mL) and blank-NV (unloaded) presented mean particle sizes of 181 ± 3 nm and 470 ± 2 nm, respectively, acid pH, positive zeta potentials, PDI below 0.3 and drug content close to 100%. CZP oral bioavailability after encapsulation into NV was 24%, twice the oral value observed for CZP in solution (9%). An increase in half-life was observed for CZP-NV (4.32 ± 1.33 h) in relation to free CZP (2.28 ± 0.68 h), due to the decrease in total clearance (a = 0.05). In the study with VPA, the mean diameter, zeta potential and pH of VPA-NV (5 mg/mL) and blank-NV were 333 ±1.5 nm and 131 ±1 nm; 25.6 ± 0.8 mV and +13.4 ± 1.7 mV; 2.69 ± 0.02 and 2.71 ± 0.08, respectively. The plasma profiles of G1, G2, and G3 declined in a bi-exponential fashion. G5 total clearance and volume of distribution at steady state were significantly decreased in relation to G4 (a = 0.05) and the half-life was not altered. The peak plasma concentration (Cmax) was significantly higher in the G7 group than G6, and the peak time (tmax) took place earlier after administration of G6. G7 clearance and volume of distribution at steady state were both significantly decreased in the same proportion in relation to G6 (a = 0.05), not altering the halflife. Conclusions: In this work a new nanovesicular system was developed and biologically evaluated. The system showed to be useful to improve VPA and CZP pharmacokinetics. The nanovesicles have potential for application for different biological and technological uses.

L’immunosuppression a permis d’améliorer l’incidence du rejet aigu sans toutefois améliorer significativement le rejet chronique. Celui-ci est caractérisé par une vasculopathie du greffon (VG) similaire à une forme accélérée d’athérosclérose native accompagnée de fibrose. La pathophysiologie de la VG découle de l’hypothèse de réponse à l’insulte proposée par Russell Ross en 1977. Selon son postulat, l’endothélium stressé par des facteurs immunologiques et non immunologiques initie l’apoptose endothéliale suivi d’une réponse de réparation vasculaire via un épaississement myo-intimal aux sites d’insultes. Toutefois, lorsque les stress endothéliaux initiaux demeurent soutenus, l’apoptose endothéliale et la réponse de réparation perpétuent. Compte tenu que l’inhibition de l’apoptose endothéliale bloque le développement de la VG in vivo, notre hypothèse de travail reposait sur les répercussions paracrines de l’apoptose endothéliale sur les types cellulaires participant au remodelage vasculaire. Nous avons généré un système expérimental in vitro afin d’induire l’apoptose endothéliale en absence significative de nécrose cellulaire. À l’aide d’une approche protéomique multidimensionnelle et comparative, nous avons démontré que les cellules endothéliales apoptotiques exportent spécifiquement 27 signaux post mortem (SPM). Nous avons démontré que certains de ces SPM ont des propriétés anti-apoptotiques (TCTP et EGF), d’autre fibrogénique (CTGF), récapitulant ainsi certains phénotypes cellulaires associés au développement de la VG. Parmi les médiateurs identifiés, 16 n’avaient pas de signal de sécrétion, incluant TCTP, suggérant que des mécanismes de sécrétion non conventionnels soient favorisés durant l’apoptose. Nous avons démontré que la caspase-3 effectrice régule la voie de sécrétion non classique exosomiale associée à l’export extracellulaire de nanovésicules TCTP+VE, anti-apoptotiques et biochimiquement distinctes des corps apoptotiques. Finalement, l’ensemble des données protéomiques ont permis d’émettre l’hypothèse qu’en réponse à un stress apoptotique, la cellule exporte différents médiateurs (solubles et vésiculaires) de manière non conventionnelle nécessitant la fusion d’organelles de la voie endocytaire et autophagique avec la membrane plasmique. Ce mécanisme serait régulé durant la phase effectrice de l’apoptose permettant ainsi d’initier une réponse de réparation extracellulaire seulement lorsque le destin cellulaire a atteint un point de non retour. Ainsi, le testament protéique et nanovésiculaire légué durant l’apoptose endothéliale pourrait servir simultanément de biomarqueur de la VG et de cible thérapeutique afin de diminuer le remodelage vasculaire pathologique. / Immunosuppression regiments improved steadily the incidence of acute rejection with minimal positive effects on chronic rejection. The latter is characterized by a transplant vasculopathy (TV) similar to native atherosclerosis, accompanied with fibrosis throughout the vascular wall of the allograft. The pathophysiology associated to TV arose from pionnering work of Russell Ross in 1977. He proposed the 'Response to Injury' hypothesis revealing that endothelium injury initiated by immunological and non immunological factors favors a vascular repair response through neo-intima thickening at the sites of cellular injury. However, when endothelial insult is maintained, apoptosis ensues and the vascular repair process perpetuates. Since inhibition of endothelial apoptosis prevents TV development in vivo, we hypothesized that endothelial apoptosis regulates the vascular repair process through a paracrine program active on the cellular components of the vessel wall. We have generated an in vitro experimental system to induce endothelial apoptosis in absence of necrosis. Using a multifunctional and comparative proteomic approach, we have identified 27 post mortem signals (PMS) specifically exported by apoptotic endothelial cells. Some of these PMS display anti-apoptotic function (TCTP and EGF), whereas CTGF was identified as a fibrogenic factor, recapitulating the cellular events associated to the development of TV. Interestingly, 16 of these SPM did not contain a peptide signal, suggesting that non conventional secretion mechanisms could be favored during the effector phase of apoptosis. We demonstrated that activated caspase-3 regulates the exosomal secretion pathway associated to the export of nanovesicles TCTP +ve, anti-apoptotic and biochemically different from apoptotic blebs. Finally, the overall proteomic data generated a new hypothesis suggesting that in response to apoptotic stress, the cell exports different mediators (soluble and vesicular) by non conventional mechanism through the fusion of endocytic organelles and autophagic vacuoles with the plasma membrane, releasing their content into the extracellular milieu. This mechanism should be regulated during the effector phase of apoptosis favoring a vascular repair response only when cell’s demise reaches a point of no return. Therefore, these PMS could be used both as biomarkers of apoptosis or as biopharmaceutical targets to decrease the incidence of chronic vascular repair.

L’immunosuppression a permis d’améliorer l’incidence du rejet aigu sans toutefois améliorer significativement le rejet chronique. Celui-ci est caractérisé par une vasculopathie du greffon (VG) similaire à une forme accélérée d’athérosclérose native accompagnée de fibrose. La pathophysiologie de la VG découle de l’hypothèse de réponse à l’insulte proposée par Russell Ross en 1977. Selon son postulat, l’endothélium stressé par des facteurs immunologiques et non immunologiques initie l’apoptose endothéliale suivi d’une réponse de réparation vasculaire via un épaississement myo-intimal aux sites d’insultes. Toutefois, lorsque les stress endothéliaux initiaux demeurent soutenus, l’apoptose endothéliale et la réponse de réparation perpétuent. Compte tenu que l’inhibition de l’apoptose endothéliale bloque le développement de la VG in vivo, notre hypothèse de travail reposait sur les répercussions paracrines de l’apoptose endothéliale sur les types cellulaires participant au remodelage vasculaire. Nous avons généré un système expérimental in vitro afin d’induire l’apoptose endothéliale en absence significative de nécrose cellulaire. À l’aide d’une approche protéomique multidimensionnelle et comparative, nous avons démontré que les cellules endothéliales apoptotiques exportent spécifiquement 27 signaux post mortem (SPM). Nous avons démontré que certains de ces SPM ont des propriétés anti-apoptotiques (TCTP et EGF), d’autre fibrogénique (CTGF), récapitulant ainsi certains phénotypes cellulaires associés au développement de la VG. Parmi les médiateurs identifiés, 16 n’avaient pas de signal de sécrétion, incluant TCTP, suggérant que des mécanismes de sécrétion non conventionnels soient favorisés durant l’apoptose. Nous avons démontré que la caspase-3 effectrice régule la voie de sécrétion non classique exosomiale associée à l’export extracellulaire de nanovésicules TCTP+VE, anti-apoptotiques et biochimiquement distinctes des corps apoptotiques. Finalement, l’ensemble des données protéomiques ont permis d’émettre l’hypothèse qu’en réponse à un stress apoptotique, la cellule exporte différents médiateurs (solubles et vésiculaires) de manière non conventionnelle nécessitant la fusion d’organelles de la voie endocytaire et autophagique avec la membrane plasmique. Ce mécanisme serait régulé durant la phase effectrice de l’apoptose permettant ainsi d’initier une réponse de réparation extracellulaire seulement lorsque le destin cellulaire a atteint un point de non retour. Ainsi, le testament protéique et nanovésiculaire légué durant l’apoptose endothéliale pourrait servir simultanément de biomarqueur de la VG et de cible thérapeutique afin de diminuer le remodelage vasculaire pathologique. / Immunosuppression regiments improved steadily the incidence of acute rejection with minimal positive effects on chronic rejection. The latter is characterized by a transplant vasculopathy (TV) similar to native atherosclerosis, accompanied with fibrosis throughout the vascular wall of the allograft. The pathophysiology associated to TV arose from pionnering work of Russell Ross in 1977. He proposed the 'Response to Injury' hypothesis revealing that endothelium injury initiated by immunological and non immunological factors favors a vascular repair response through neo-intima thickening at the sites of cellular injury. However, when endothelial insult is maintained, apoptosis ensues and the vascular repair process perpetuates. Since inhibition of endothelial apoptosis prevents TV development in vivo, we hypothesized that endothelial apoptosis regulates the vascular repair process through a paracrine program active on the cellular components of the vessel wall. We have generated an in vitro experimental system to induce endothelial apoptosis in absence of necrosis. Using a multifunctional and comparative proteomic approach, we have identified 27 post mortem signals (PMS) specifically exported by apoptotic endothelial cells. Some of these PMS display anti-apoptotic function (TCTP and EGF), whereas CTGF was identified as a fibrogenic factor, recapitulating the cellular events associated to the development of TV. Interestingly, 16 of these SPM did not contain a peptide signal, suggesting that non conventional secretion mechanisms could be favored during the effector phase of apoptosis. We demonstrated that activated caspase-3 regulates the exosomal secretion pathway associated to the export of nanovesicles TCTP +ve, anti-apoptotic and biochemically different from apoptotic blebs. Finally, the overall proteomic data generated a new hypothesis suggesting that in response to apoptotic stress, the cell exports different mediators (soluble and vesicular) by non conventional mechanism through the fusion of endocytic organelles and autophagic vacuoles with the plasma membrane, releasing their content into the extracellular milieu. This mechanism should be regulated during the effector phase of apoptosis favoring a vascular repair response only when cell’s demise reaches a point of no return. Therefore, these PMS could be used both as biomarkers of apoptosis or as biopharmaceutical targets to decrease the incidence of chronic vascular repair.