The social and economic contribution of tourism to local communities is now being recognised as one of the most vital aspects for the tourism industry. Literature on national parks emphasises the importance of relations between parks and communities, as well as knowledge and understanding of the social and economic impacts of parks on the development of local communities. Although national parks are seen as major tourism assets and the vital role that they play in adjacent communities is understood, still little is known about the socio-economic contribution of these parks to their respective local economies and communities. Socio-economic impact study is important since it provides information that can influence a community's attitudes and perceptions and accordingly, its behaviour, which may create a cohesive society which is important for the success of national parks. The primary goal-of this study was to determine the socio-economic impact of the Wilderness National Park (WNP) on the community of Wilderness. To achieve the above goal, secondary objectives were set, namely: to determine the socio-economic benefits of Wilderness National Park, to determine the social impact of the WNP on the community of Wilderness, to determine the length of residency as an influential factor in the social impact of tourism and to draw conclusions and make recommendations based on the results of the study. Three surveys were conducted (as quantitative research): a community survey (101 questionnaires), a business survey in Wilderness (22 questionnaires) and a tourist survey (85 questionnaires) of tourists visiting the Wilderness National Park. The research outcome contains two components: Article 1 (Chapter 2), a socio-economic impact study (where all three surveys were used); and Article 2 (Chapter 3), a social impact study of length of residency (where only the community survey was used). Research for both articles was undertaken at Wilderness. Article 1 is titled: "The socio-economic benefits of Wilderness National Park". The main purpose of this article was to determine the socio-economic benefits of the WNP to the community of Wilderness. Results indicated that the Park has an impact in terms of production, income generation and employment, and that it is also achieving its goal with regard to conservation, creating economic opportunities and involving the community of Wilderness. Only 24% of businesses indicated that their existence is due to the Wilderness National Park. However, guesthouses and Bed and Breakfast establishments indicated that they benefit most from the Park since 62,1% of the accommodation units' turnover is due to the Park. Food and restaurants indicated that 7,5% of their business is due to the Park, while tourism services estimated this contribution at 33,3%. The results confirm that the total economic leakage percentage is well above 50%, indicating that the urban areas face high leakages. However, in terms of employment creation, the fact that 100% of all workers live in the area under consideration is an indication that the benefits of the Park reach the community members. Overall, the results indicated that the total impact of the Wilderness National Park on the local economy was R12,8 million and that it is an effect of the total spending by visitors. Aspects driving the social value/benefits include improvement of the area; that the Park leads to an increased awareness of nature and wildlife; that it preserves local culture and nature; that the appearance of the area has improved; and that the Park provides the community with an opportunity to visit natural areas. Results further indicated that the Park has a greater social impact/benefit than economic impact/benefit because it is situated in an affluent community. Article 2 is titled: "Length of residency as an influential factor in the social impact of tourism". The main aim of this article was to determine if length of residency influences the social impact of the influence on the community of Wilderness. It further showed that length of residency helps predict positive and negative perceptions of the residents in terms of the environmental, social and economic aspects of tourism. It was found that, since to the establishment of the WNP, the residents which have been living in Wilderness for a shorter period of time indicated that they experienced the social aspects positively, the economic aspects both as equally positive and negative, but regard the environmental aspects as more positive than negative, whereas the residents that have been living in Wilderness for a longer period indicated that they experienced the environmental aspects positively, the social aspects more negatively, and a more negative than positive experience regarding the economic aspects. Thus, length of residency is definitely an influential factor in the social impact of tourism on the community of Wilderness. The results of both articles confirm that the community felt that the Park does have a positive to very positive effect on the quality of the community and has a greater social, rather than economic, impact on the community of Wilderness. The results indicated that length of residency does help predict perceptions of social impacts and is thus definitely an influential factor of the social impact of tourism on the community of Wilderness. This study contributes to the literature available on the (1) socio-economic impacts/benefits of urban parks (WNP), and (2) length of residency as an influential factor in social impacts of tourism. / Thesis (M.A. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The primary objective of this study was to develop an ecotourism model for South African National Parks. South African National Parks' current ecotourism/tourism management strategies were analysed and it was found that no clear guidelines regarding the development and management of ecotourism in South Africa National Parks exists. As South African National Parks (SANParks) is one of the largest conservation and ecotourism providers in South Africa, and because ecotourism tends to occur in sensitive ecological and human communities, the need for an ecotourism model for South African National Parks is crucial. The absence of such a model will prevent the effective and sustainable management, monitoring and control of ecotourism in South African National Parks. A literature study was conducted into sustainable–, responsible– and ecotourism as well as current national and international policies concerning ecotourism in national parks or nature–based tourism. Sustainable tourism requires that tourism development should be of such a nature that a balance is kept between the economy, socio–cultural environment and the physical environment. This is referred to as the triple bottom line. The goal of sustainable tourism is to maximise the positive impacts and minimise the negative impacts on the just mentioned triple bottom line aspects. Responsible tourism has the same goals as sustainable tourism, but stresses the importance of all stakeholders taking responsibility of ensuring a sustainable tourism industry. It should therefore be seen as a pathway to achieve sustainable tourism, rather than as an end in itself. Ecotourism forms part of the sustainable/responsible tourism paradigm. From the literature, four main pillars were identified on which ecotourism is based, namely: conservation and enhancement of natural and cultural attractions; environmental education; sustainable management practices and the provision of an enlightening tourist experience. The literature review also indicated some principles supportive of the pillars that are important if ecotourism is to take place, namely: natural and cultural environment; local community upliftment; long–term planning; ethical behaviour of all stakeholders; environmentally–friendly practices and tourist satisfaction. Quantitative research was conducted. An explorative research approach was followed by the means of a self–administered questionnaire with the aim of determining the perceptions, of both the demand side (visitors to South Africa National Parks) and from the supply side (managers of South African National Parks) on the subject of ecotourism. Fifty–six (56) constructs pertaining to aspects of ecotourism were measured on a five–point Likert scale. The constructs were based on a literature review regarding responsible– and ecotourism. Sources that were used to a large extent to develop the questionnaire include the works of Frey and George (2010), Saayman (2009), Fennell (2008), Spencely (2008), Björk (2007), Diamantis (2004),DEAT (2003) The questionnaire for the visitor survey was launched on the website of South Africa National Parks during March 2011 and ran for one month. During this time, 993 respondents completed the questionnaire. The same questionnaire was sent via electronic mail to the managers of SANParks, namely regional and general managers, hospitality services managers and managing executives. A total of 25 questionnaires were completed. The results of the empirical research were processed by the North–West University's Statistical Consultation Services (Potchefstroom Campus). The data was analysed by means of the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software programme. Statistical methods that were used include: descriptive statistics; exploratory factor analysis; factor correlation matrix and a t–test. The results of the descriptive statistics revealed that the following ecotourism aspects were rated as most important by visitors: everyone (staff and visitors) has a responsibility to maintain a litter–free environment; animals should not be fed; everyone (staff and visitors) has a responsibility to save water and electricity. The managers, however, rated the following as the most important ecotourism aspects: to ensure managers, staff and contract employees understand and adhere to all aspects of the South African National Parks' policy to prevent negative impacts on the environment and local communities; do not feed the animals; and to comply with all relevant national, provincial and local legislation, regulations, licences and permits as may be required. Six factors were identified from the exploratory factor analysis: Factor 1: Product development; Factor 2: Local community involvement; Factor 3: Environmentally friendly practices; Factor 4: Ethics; Factor 5: Food and activities; Factor 6: Policies. The factors recorded serve as important guidelines for the development and management of ecotourism products in South African National Parks. For instance, the factor with the highest mean value was “ethics”. Visitor respondents felt very strongly that rules and regulations should be adhered to by visitors and that severe penalties should be implemented in the case of non–compliance. This was also the definite view of staff members. The research made the following contributions to the discipline of tourism and specifically ecotourism: * This research presents the first ecotourism model for South African National Parks which can assist park management in creating ecotourism products that provide a sustainable ecotourism experience and secure the future of ecotourism in national parks. * It was the first time that the perception of ecotourism was determined from both a demand and supply side in South Africa National Parks, which assisted in identifying the key factors for ecotourism products from. * The results of this research paved the way for SANParks in the development of an ecotourism policy for South African National Parks. * The results further made a contribution to the future development of a national ecotourism policy for South Africa (which currently does not exist). Such a policy can then be applied to provincial parks, private game reserves and game farms in South Africa. * The research contributed to the development of a sustainable ecotourism rating criteria for South African National Parks to allow them to grow closer to an ideal managed system that is in line with sustainable / responsible management aspects. * The results were presented at the First International Conference on Tourism and Management Studies in the Algarve, Portugal on the 27th October 2011. * A contribution was also made to the literature on ecotourism in terms of clarification of what is expected by the users (tourists) of ecotourism products and what SANParks' managers view as important aspects of ecotourism and how ecotourism should be developed and managed. * Finally, this study contributed to the research concerning national parks in terms of ecotourism development and management. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

I analyse the emergence of a co-management system for protected area governance at Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site on the northwest coast of Canada. Of primary concern is the analysis of the co-management structure for properties that are essential for maintaining a sustainable trajectory and an exploration of the key mechanisms for its development. The underlying framework for the analysis in this thesis is panarchy which is based on four categories of factors for building resilience: 1) learning to live with change and uncertainty; 2) nurturing diversity for re-organization and renewal; 3) combining different kinds of knowledge; and 4) creating opportunity for self-organization. This framework emerges from the conclusions of a multi-year team study of the dynamics of socio-ecological systems and how to enhance the resilience of these complex systems to tackle complexity, uncertainty and global environmental change. As the Archipelago Management Board (AMB) is the institutional structure that is managing the future of Gwaii Haanas, therefore, I focus on how this structure facilitates resilience. 1 argue that it should be an arena for flexible collaboration with multi-level governance that facilitates adaptive management (learning and building ecological knowledge into the institutional structure) and nurturing elements of resilience (cultural and ecological memory). The Lyell Island blockade in 1986, was a collective action against a crisis (cultural and environmental degradation caused by industrial logging) where key stewards and several Haida elders provided leadership, vision and trust. Parks Canada helped end the conflict by offering a management approach that accommodates Haida rights to their traditional lands, the formation of Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site. Here I argue that the power-sharing structure of the AMB provides political space for experimentation. As such, the AMB appears to be an adaptive co-management system that is flexible, community-based, tailored to specific situations and supported by and working in collaboration with a concerned government agency to ensure sustainable resource management. So far, this arrangement has been able to successfully move away from a less desired trajectory toward a more sustainable one with the capacity to nurture the ecological health of Gwaii Haanas and the Haida culture on which it depends. I discuss the key role of co-management in re-coupling society to ecological feedback, creating political space for experimentation, accommodating varied ways of knowing and learning, including traditional ecological knowledge to link management with ecological understanding, and extending management into the social domain. I conclude that management in the implementation of protected area policy in Canadian National Parks could benefit from a more explicit collaboration with local communities who have special interests and site-specific ecological knowledge to better understand and monitor complex systems for long-term sustainability of protected areas.

Federal agencies operating along the border in southern Florida include the United States Coast Guard (USCG), United States Customs and Border Protection (USCBP), which is the parent agency for Border Patrol (BP), Immigration Customs Enforcement (ICE), and the National Park Service (NPS). Each agency has its own mission regarding immigration, and conflicts have emerged regarding responsibilities and responses to immigrant landings. The purpose of this study was to identify federal law enforcement perspectives about tactics for responses to Cuban immigrant landings within national parks in southern Florida. This study was motivated by the following research questions: 1.) How do the federal agencies operating along the southeastern border in Florida work together during responses to Cuban immigrant landings within national parks? 2.) What are the perspectives among agency personnel about tactics for response to Cuban immigrant landings within national parks? 3.) What tactics should be emphasized in future responses? The concept of shared mental models (SMM) provided a framework for the research, and data was collected through the Q method. Three factors, or social perspectives, on responses to landings were revealed: 1.) React & Transport, 2.) Protect and 3.) Plan. Implications for managers, limitations and future research is discussed.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 132-136). / Also available by subscription via World Wide Web / ix, 136 leaves, bound map 29 cm

There are concerns that many national parks worldwide are ineffective at conserving biological diversity and ecosystem processes, are socially unjust in their relations with Indigenous communities, or both. This dissertation asks: can national parks protect ecological integrity and concurrently address social equity issues? It presents empirical results of a systematic evaluation of six case study national parks in Canada and South Africa. Purposive sampling was used to select the six case study national parks. Data sources included State of the Park Reports; park ecological monitoring data; archival data; and semi-structured interviews with park biologists, managers, and Indigenous members of park co-management boards. Status and trend assessments and effectiveness evaluations of park ecological monitoring data were used to evaluate how effectively the parks addressed three ecological integrity criteria. Results show that all six parks effectively addressed the priority indicators for which they had monitoring data. However, the effectiveness ratings of each park decreased when all indicators, including those identified as priorities but lacking monitoring data, were analysed. This indicates that the parks had generally identified more priority indicators than they were actually able to address (for reasons including lack of budget or trained staff, managerial challenges). Thematic coding of semi-structured interview and archival data, and the assignation of numerical ratings to these data, were used to evaluate how effectively the parks addressed three equity criteria. Results show that all but one of the case study parks were equitable, parks with more comprehensive co-management and support from neighbouring Indigenous groups were more equitable than parks with lower levels of co-management, the parks with settled land claims were not necessarily more equitable overall, and a few parks were found to be co-managed in name only. The overall results of this evaluation demonstrate that parks effective at protecting ecological integrity can also successfully address social equity, but that further efforts to integrate these two realms are both possible and necessary. A logical starting point would be to build upon those existing integrative processes already institutionalised in many parks and protected areas: the co-management and integrated conservation and development efforts.

Bibliography: leaves 170-179. / vi, 179 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Describes a deterministic computer model for simulating forest dynamics which is the applied to a number of different timber harvesting scenarios in the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell.) forests of Victoria, south-eastern Australia. Also looks at a number of new mathematical problems in the design of nature reserve systems. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Depts. of Applied Mathematics, Environmental Science and Management, 2000?

Bibliography: leaves 170-179. / vi, 179 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Describes a deterministic computer model for simulating forest dynamics which is the applied to a number of different timber harvesting scenarios in the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell.) forests of Victoria, south-eastern Australia. Also looks at a number of new mathematical problems in the design of nature reserve systems. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Depts. of Applied Mathematics, Environmental Science and Management, 2000?

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2007. / Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 207-225). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.

Thesis (M. Env. St.)--University of Adelaide, Centre for Environmental Studies, 1991. / Photographs mounted in. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 146-152).