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This thesis deals with the study and normative proposal for a regulation of noise pollution generated by merchant ships, which is the main cause of underwater noise pollution. It is divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, the aspects of marine acoustics are reviewed, including a revisit of hydrophones, the analysis of the distances at which sound intensities are maintained above a baseline level, and a self designed study, which leads to the conclusion that the differences in incremental trends in underwater sound intensity in previous studies are due to differences in maritime traffic. This is confirmed by highly significant statistical data obtained by binary logistic regression between hydrophonic records that have detected an increase and those that have not (p<0.0001). A compilation and bibliometric analysis has made it possible to study specifically the negative impact of ship-generated noise on marine species. In 87% of the publications consulted, including experimental data, a high or moderately high negative impact of sound on marine species was evident; only 5% of the articles reported no effects of noise pollution. The study covered a wide variety of seas and oceans, although most of the studies (31%) were conducted using cages or similar. The research was mainly conducted on fish (43%) and mammals (38%). Behavioural changes were recorded in 59% of cases, physical changes in 11%, masking in 11% and combined changes in 14%. Four levels of underwater sound intensity are proposed: Environmental zone 0 (no appreciable anthropogenic pollution), from baseline level (30 dB) to 80 dB. Zone A of acceptable (low) pollution, from 81 dB to 175 dB (threshold of potential damage). Zone B of tolerable, but potentially harmful sound intensities (between 176 dB and 195 dB) and a Zone C of risk of permanent injury (above 195 dB, permanent injury threshold); vessels generating intensities at this level should be penalised or even banned. A way forward for the future regulation of underwater noise pollution is suggested, through a concerted effort via a global track derived from the UN in collaboration with specialised global and EU organisations, including the Baltic Sea registers, and legal support from the experts of the World Commission on Environmental Law. Its implementation should be carried out through the International Maritime Organization IMO).

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Le Liban, un pays Méditerranéen, est bien connu pour sa richesse relative en eau au Moyen-Orient, une région naturellement aride. Cependant, le Liban fait face à un risque grandissant de stress hydrique. Le secteur agricole qui s’étend sur différentes régions au Liban, représente 60 % de la consommation de l’eau douce du pays. Toutefois, cette eau est mal gérée et utilisée de façon négligente, menant à de grandes pertes de la ressource. Aujourd’hui, le secteur domestique fait face à un manque en eau et se retrouve obligé de s’en procurer par des moyens non-conventionnels. Afin de combattre la pénurie d’eau, quels seront le potentiel et les limites du Liban à explorer l’application du modèle circulaire ? Les études de cas choisies ont dépeint le potentiel du Liban à récupérer les déchets et eaux usées pour des fins agricoles, en soulignant la préservation et l’optimisation de l’eau dans toute l’économie. À petite échelle, le Liban a prouvé le succès de la circularité de l'eau dans l'agriculture, mais a également révélé des obstacles lorsqu'il s'agit de comprendre le secteur de l'eau. Pourtant, le Liban a le potentiel d'atteindre la circularité dans ce secteur et au-delà. Le cas de la station d'épuration d'Ablah valide le potentiel de démultiplication de son modèle opérationnel sur des stations existantes situées à proximité de champs agricoles en normalisant l'utilisation de l'eau traitée et en renforçant la gouvernance de l'eau ; y parvenir améliorerait l'approvisionnement en eau de l'économie. Néanmoins, le gouvernement et les autres parties concernées jouent un rôle majeur dans l'aspect juridique crucial de la mise en œuvre d'un modèle circulaire. / Lebanon is a Mediterranean country well known for its relative richness in water to the Middle East, a naturally arid region. However, in recent years, Lebanon has been facing a risk of increasing water stress. The Lebanese agricultural sector spreads across different regions and accounts for 60 % of Lebanon's freshwater consumption. However, this water is mismanaged and carelessly used, leading to great losses of the resource. Today, the domestic sector faces a lack of water and is forced to obtain it by unconventional means. To combat water scarcity, what are the potential and limitations of Lebanon to explore the concept of circular economy? The chosen case studies have portrayed Lebanon’s potential at recovering waste including used water, for agricultural purposes, but has also risen an interesting point about water preservation and maximization in the whole economy. At a small scale, Lebanon has proven the success of water circularity in agriculture but has also revealed barriers when it comes to understanding the water sector. Yet, Lebanon holds a potential to attain circularity in the water sector and beyond. The case of the Ablah Wastewater Treatment Plant validates the potential to multiply its operational model on existing wastewater treatment plants that are located next to agricultural fields by normalizing the use of treated water and by strengthening water governance; succeeding at this would improve water supply in the economy. Nevertheless, the government and the other concerned parties, play a major role in the crucial legal aspect of the implementation of a circular model.

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