Thesis advisor: John E. Ebel / Thesis advisor: Alan L. Kafka / As the best seismic indicator of shear modulus, shear-wave velocity is an important property in engineering problems in near-surface site characterization. Several surface-wave methods have been developed to obtain the subsurface shear-wave velocity structure. This thesis compared three surface-wave methods, Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW) (Nazarian et al., 1983), Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) (Park et al., 1999), and Refraction Microtremor (ReMi) (Louie, 2001), to determine which method gives the best estimation of the 1-D shear-wave velocity profile of near-surface soils. We collected seismic data at three sites in the greater Boston area where there are direct measurements of shear-wave velocities for comparison. The three methods were compared in terms of accuracy and precision. Overall, the MASW and the ReMi methods have comparable quality of accuracy, whereas the SASW method is the least accurate method with the highest percentage differences with direct measurements. The MASW method is the most precise method among the three methods with the smallest standard deviations. In general, the MASW method is concluded to be the best surface-wave method in determining the shear-wave velocities of the subsurface structure in the greater Boston area.

Anomalias de potencial espontâneo com amplitudes de dezenas a centenas de milivolts são observadas em plumas de contaminação apesar de não serem explicadas por modelos de geobateria normalmente utilizados na geofísica de exploração. Modelos recentemente propostos, denominados de biogeobateria, assumem que estruturas orgânicas produzidas por micro- organismos assumem a função de condução eletrônica que os minerais condutivos exercem no modelo clássico de geobateria. O modelo de biogeobateria, por outro lado, se assemelha com o que se denomina sistemas bioeletroquímicos ou células de combustível microbianas em áreas da biotecnologia (bioenergia). O presente trabalho explora esta semelhança para desenvolver um experimento de laboratório que utiliza um sistema bioeletroquímico como modelo análogo de biogeobateria para mostrar que este modelo é capaz de explicar o sinal de potencial espontâneo observado em campo. Os resultados experimentais e de modelagem numérica mostram que a amplitude do potencial elétrico depende: da área do catodo, da resistência interna da biogeobateria, da existência de um fluxo adicional de cátions do anodo para o catodo, da resistividade elétrica do meio e da separação do anodo com o catodo. Os resultados experimentais mostraram-se compatíveis com observações de campo obtidas na caracterização hidrogeofísica de uma pluma de contaminação, proveniente de um aterro de resíduos (lixão). A pluma de contaminação se estende por dois níveis em profundidade, comprometendo a qualidade do aquífero livre e certamente do aquífero confinado. A ano- malia de potencial espontâneo alcança amplitude de 70mV sobre o aquífero livre, sendo praticamente desprezível sobre o aquífero confinado, tal como se observa em laboratório em modelos correspondentes. O experimento com biogeobateria mostra também que as reações químicas desencadeadas no anodo oxidam o substrato orgânico, reduzindo a demanda química de oxigênio em 10 % no experimento considerado. Este resultado mostra que sinais de potencial espontâneo em áreas contaminadas podem ser considerados como indicativos de processos oxidativos ocorrendo em um substrato orgânico sendo, pois, de relevância para o reconhecimento de processos de atenuação natural em terrenos com contaminantes orgânicos. / Self-potential anomalies with amplitudes of tens to hundreds of millivolts are observed in contaminated plumes despite not fully explained by geobattery models commonly used in geophysical exploration. Recently proposed models, termed as biogeobattery, assume that organic structures produced by microorganisms act as electronic conductors, as it is done by conductive minerals in standard geobattery models. The biogeobattery model in addition resembles what is termed as bioelectrochemical system or microbial fuel cell in fields of the research in biotechnology (bioenergy). This study explores this similarity to develop a laboratory experiment using a bioelectrochemical system as an analog model for a biogeobattery, to show that this model is able to explain the spontaneous potential signals observed in many geophysical surveys over contaminated sites. Experimental and modeling results show that the amplitude of the electric potential from a biogeobattery depends on: the area of ? the cathode, its internal resistance, the existence of an additional flow of cations (from the anode to the cathode), the electrical resistivity of the medium and the separation of anode to the cathode. In general, the experimental results were compatible with field observations at a contamination plume produced by a landfill. The contamination plume extends over two levels deep, degrading the quality of the unconfined and confined aquifers. The amplitude of the self-potential anomaly reaches 70mV over the unconfined aquifer and is negligible over the confined aquifer, as observed in the corresponding models of the laboratory experiment. The biogeobattery experiment also shows that chemical reactions at the system anode were able do oxidize the organic substrate, reducing in 10% its chemical oxygen demand. This result shows that self-potential signals in contaminated areas can be regarded as indicative of oxidative processes taking of buried organic matter and, as such, a proxy of biodegradation processes leading to natural attenuation of organic ontaminants.

Anomalias de potencial espontâneo com amplitudes de dezenas a centenas de milivolts são observadas em plumas de contaminação apesar de não serem explicadas por modelos de geobateria normalmente utilizados na geofísica de exploração. Modelos recentemente propostos, denominados de biogeobateria, assumem que estruturas orgânicas produzidas por micro- organismos assumem a função de condução eletrônica que os minerais condutivos exercem no modelo clássico de geobateria. O modelo de biogeobateria, por outro lado, se assemelha com o que se denomina sistemas bioeletroquímicos ou células de combustível microbianas em áreas da biotecnologia (bioenergia). O presente trabalho explora esta semelhança para desenvolver um experimento de laboratório que utiliza um sistema bioeletroquímico como modelo análogo de biogeobateria para mostrar que este modelo é capaz de explicar o sinal de potencial espontâneo observado em campo. Os resultados experimentais e de modelagem numérica mostram que a amplitude do potencial elétrico depende: da área do catodo, da resistência interna da biogeobateria, da existência de um fluxo adicional de cátions do anodo para o catodo, da resistividade elétrica do meio e da separação do anodo com o catodo. Os resultados experimentais mostraram-se compatíveis com observações de campo obtidas na caracterização hidrogeofísica de uma pluma de contaminação, proveniente de um aterro de resíduos (lixão). A pluma de contaminação se estende por dois níveis em profundidade, comprometendo a qualidade do aquífero livre e certamente do aquífero confinado. A ano- malia de potencial espontâneo alcança amplitude de 70mV sobre o aquífero livre, sendo praticamente desprezível sobre o aquífero confinado, tal como se observa em laboratório em modelos correspondentes. O experimento com biogeobateria mostra também que as reações químicas desencadeadas no anodo oxidam o substrato orgânico, reduzindo a demanda química de oxigênio em 10 % no experimento considerado. Este resultado mostra que sinais de potencial espontâneo em áreas contaminadas podem ser considerados como indicativos de processos oxidativos ocorrendo em um substrato orgânico sendo, pois, de relevância para o reconhecimento de processos de atenuação natural em terrenos com contaminantes orgânicos. / Self-potential anomalies with amplitudes of tens to hundreds of millivolts are observed in contaminated plumes despite not fully explained by geobattery models commonly used in geophysical exploration. Recently proposed models, termed as biogeobattery, assume that organic structures produced by microorganisms act as electronic conductors, as it is done by conductive minerals in standard geobattery models. The biogeobattery model in addition resembles what is termed as bioelectrochemical system or microbial fuel cell in fields of the research in biotechnology (bioenergy). This study explores this similarity to develop a laboratory experiment using a bioelectrochemical system as an analog model for a biogeobattery, to show that this model is able to explain the spontaneous potential signals observed in many geophysical surveys over contaminated sites. Experimental and modeling results show that the amplitude of the electric potential from a biogeobattery depends on: the area of ? the cathode, its internal resistance, the existence of an additional flow of cations (from the anode to the cathode), the electrical resistivity of the medium and the separation of anode to the cathode. In general, the experimental results were compatible with field observations at a contamination plume produced by a landfill. The contamination plume extends over two levels deep, degrading the quality of the unconfined and confined aquifers. The amplitude of the self-potential anomaly reaches 70mV over the unconfined aquifer and is negligible over the confined aquifer, as observed in the corresponding models of the laboratory experiment. The biogeobattery experiment also shows that chemical reactions at the system anode were able do oxidize the organic substrate, reducing in 10% its chemical oxygen demand. This result shows that self-potential signals in contaminated areas can be regarded as indicative of oxidative processes taking of buried organic matter and, as such, a proxy of biodegradation processes leading to natural attenuation of organic ontaminants.

Populations residing on and near the world’s coasts have become increasingly dependent on coastal groundwater for their supply of freshwater. Under the conditions of predicted climate changes, the expected rise in global sea level can adversely affect the quality and quantity of freshwater resources in coastal areas as a result of saltwater intrusion. In this study, a suite of two- and three-dimensional variable-density groundwater flow models of major coastal landforms (e.g. deltas, estuaries and small islands) has been constructed to assess the effects of sea level rise (SLR), using different SLR rates of 0.5 m, 1m and 1.5 m over the next 90 years, from 2010-2100. The model results indicate that in natural coastal systems the extent of saltwater intrusion is significantly controlled by the stratigraphy of the depositional environments. Among deltaic aquifers, wave-dominated deltas are more prone to saltwater intrusion than river- and tide-dominated deltas. In case of a partially mixed, microtidal estuary, SLR can cause extensive porewater salinity increases, especially within estuarine sand deposits. Simulations of atoll and barrier islands reveal that carbonate atoll islands with high conductivity units, are severely affected by SLR, resulting in significant reduction of the volume of freshwater lens. In contrast, migrating sandy barrier islands could retain their freshwater resources with rising sea level under conditions of increased recharge, assuming the barriers can migrate in response to SLR. The freshwater lens of barrier island aquifers would reduce in size due to increased evapotranspiration caused by change in vegetation pattern. When examined for anthropogenic impacts of groundwater withdrawal through pumping, all the coastal aquifers show evidence of saltwater intrusion, with varying degrees of impact. Wave-dominated deltas are more affected by groundwater withdrawal than river- and tide-dominated deltaic aquifers. Saltwater intrusion in atoll islands is further enhanced by pumping withdrawal. It is evident from the results of the simulations that, the potential effects on coastal aquifers of groundwater withdrawals for potable water can easily exceed the adverse effects of SLR in terms of salinity increase.

Masonry walls subjected to out-of-plane loading, such as in a seismic event, require reinforcement to improve the ductility of the system. In current masonry construction practice, reinforcement is placed internally and fully grouted. For new construction this can make the wall unjustifiably heavy by not taking advantage of its light, hollow structure. For existing construction, it is difficult to retrofit using this technique. Additionally, the reinforcement is located close to the neutral axis which reduces its effectiveness. Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) bars, strips and sheets are becoming increasingly popular in construction applications due to their noncorrosive nature and ease of installation. Also, stainless steel bars are used where the structure is exposed to a corrosive environment but have not found wider application for masonry structures. This study is an experimental investigation of the structural performance of masonry walls reinforced with Near-Surface-Mounted (NSM) FRP and stainless steel reinforcement under out-of-plane bending. Additionally, walls with Externally Bonded (EB) FRP sheets were tested. The study simulates retrofitting applications and also proposes the NSM technique for new wall construction, using pre-grooved blocks, in lieu of the conventional method of internal reinforcing and grouting. To accommodate the NSM reinforcement, the grooves in the masonry blocks were aligned with ducts used to anchor the NSM reinforcement in the concrete footing. Seven wall specimens were tested, including walls reinforced with conventional and stainless steel bars, glass-fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP), and carbon-FRP (CFRP) reinforcement. The study demonstrated the feasibility and effectiveness of the NSM technique for new construction. Walls with NSM reinforcement showed a superior performance to those with EB reinforcement. It was shown that increasing the FRP reinforcement ratio may result in a change of failure mode, and as such, the increase in strength may not be proportional to the increase in reinforcement ratio. NSM steel-reinforced walls showed a superior performance in terms of strength, stiffness and the ductility associated with the formation of a plastic hinge at the base. / Thesis (Master, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2010-05-31 06:24:20.976

Ce travail de thèse apporte des éléments méthodologiques pour l'interprétation rapide de données électromagnétiques transitoires (TEM) aéroportées. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes intéressés au problème de l'inversion 1D qui est, à ce jour, un traitement standard. Nous nous sommes ensuite focalisés sur le problème de l'inversion 2D rapide. En nous basant sur les résultats de modélisations numériques, nous proposons un modèle empirique de sensibilité pour effectuer une inversion 2D rapide. Les tests effectués sur des données synthétiques et réelles s'avèrent très prometteurs. Ensuite, nous étudions analytiquement l'effet de la topographie. Pour un demi-espace homogène incliné, nous montrons que la direction des courants induits dans le sous-sol dépend de l'angle de l'interface air/sol. Nous proposons alors une méthode pour prendre en compte cet effet. Enfin, nous testons nos méthodes de traitement sur des données VTEM acquises dans le bassin de Franceville au Gabon. / This PhD work provides methodological tools for the fast interpretation of airborne transient electromagnetic data (ATEM). As our first step, we focused on the problem of 1D ground imaging, which is currently a standard treatment. Then, we focused on the fast 2D imaging problem. We proposed an empirical sensitivity function that allows fast 2D inversion. The results of the 2D empirical inversion when applied on both synthetic and real data sets are very promising. In the third part, we analyzed the effect of topography on the airborne EM data. For an inclined homogeneous half-space, we show that the direction of the ground induced current is parallel to the surface air/ground. Then, we proposed a method to take into account this effect. Finally, the tools developed during this PhD have been applied to a real VTEM data set acquired over the basin of Franceville, in Gabon.

The aim of the study was to assess the possibilities in using ground-penetrating radar to identify small-scale stratigraphy in the upper 1 m of a soil profile and to statistically identify differences in the stratigraphic units discovered using the GPR unit. The study area is ca 15 km southwest of Lycksele near a gravel pit on the banks of Örån. It was located on top of a large (>5 m thick) glacifluvial deposit of indeterminate age overlayed by till from the latest deglaciation. The data sampled included 22 radargrams depicting a total length of >1000 m as well as soil samples from three stratigraphic units from three different trenches (9 samples in total). Visual analysis of the stratigraphy took place via trenches as well as by studying the radar images. The radar images show that three stratigraphic units can be identified clearly (ablation till, S1, a transitional layer of mixed till and glacifluvium, S2, and the underlying glacifluvium, S3) but that the border between the two lower units can be opaque at times. Field observations showed this to be due to the genesis of the topmost unit, the ablation till. Observations in the field also showed relict podsolization in a kettle in the northern part of the study area. Grain-size comparison of the three stratigraphic units identified was performed via sieving. Calculations of the weight percentage were then used for statistical analysis to identify any differences between the strata. Results show that there are differences regarding fine material (ø <0.074 mm, p=0.038), gravel (ø > 2 mm, p<0.0001) and sand (p=0.027) within these three stratigraphic units.

Le stock d’eau, ses variations temporelles et leurs répartitions spatiales, sont des grandes inconnues du cycle hydrologique d’Afrique de l’Ouest. Les trois principaux types de gravimètres actuels (un gravimètre relatif supraconducteur –SG–, un microgravimètre relatif –CG5–, et un gravimètre absolu –FG5–) ont été déployés sur un bassin versant élémentaire de l’observatoire AMMA-CATCH de l’Ouémé supérieur (Bénin), représentatif d’un milieu cultivé de la zone soudanienne. Conjointement, un important dispositif de suivi hydrologique (piézométrie, sonde à neutrons) a été mis en place, ainsi que des mesures de géophysique de proche surface (mesures électriques, électromagnétiques et résonance magnétique des protons –RMP–) pour la caractérisation des aquifères. Ces travaux font état des apports de la gravimétrie pour 1) la détermination de la porosité de drainage en zone de socle hétérogène, 2) le suivi des variations de stock d’eau intégrées à l’échelle d’appréhension des gravimètres (parcelle de 100m de côté) et 3) l’identification de processus hydrologiques liés à la redistribution interne au sein du bassin versant et à la genèse des écoulements. / Water storage, together with its temporal and spatial variations, are major unknowns of the West African hydrological cycle. The three main gravimeter types (a relative superconducting gravimeter –SG–, a relative microgravimeter –CG5–, and an absolute gravimeter –FG5–) have been set up on an elementary catchment of the Upper Ouémé (Benin) AMMA-CATCH observatory, considered as a typical cultivated environment of the Sudanian area. Hydrological monitoring (water table, neutron probe) and near surface geophysics (electrical, electromagnetic, magnetic resonance soundings –MRS–) have been developed jointly, for aquifer characterization. This work states on the inputs provided by gravimetry on 1) specific yield determination in heterogeneous basement area, 2) the monitoring of water storage changes at the gravity measurements scale (100m square plot) and 3) hydrological processes identification, linked to internal catchment redistribution and streamflow generation.

Object-based image analysis (OBIA) has been increasingly used to identify terrain features of archaeological sites, but only recently to extract subsurface archaeological features from geophysical data. In this study, we use a semi-automated OBIA to identify Archaic (8000-1000 BC) hearths from Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) data collected at David Crockett Birthplace State Park in eastern Tennessee in the southeastern United States. The data were preprocessed using GPR-SLICE, Surfer, and Archaeofusion software, and amplitude depth slices were selected that contained anomalies ranging from 0.80 to 1.20 m below surface (BS). Next, the data were segmented within ESRI ArcMap GIS software using a global threshold and, after vectorization, classified using four attributes: area, perimeter, length-to-width ratio, and Circularity Index. The user-defined parameters were based on an excavated Archaic circular hearth found at a depth greater than one meter, which consisted of fire-cracked rock and had a diameter greater than one meter. These observations were in agreement with previous excavations of hearths at the site. Features that had a high probability of being Archaic hearths were further delineated by human interpretation from radargrams and then ground-truthed by auger testing. The semi-automated OBIA successfully predicted 15 probable Archaic hearths at depths ranging from 0.85 to 1.20 m BS. Observable spatial clustering of hearths may indicate episodes of seasonal occupation by small mobile groups during the Archaic Period.

Glacier melt is strongly impacted by climate and meteorology. Temperature lapse rates are used to model glacier melt, and the accuracy of the spatial distribution of modelled melt can be impacted by the lapse rate used in modelling. Additionally, the observed spatial distribution of melt is highly temporally variable. Whether this variability is caused by lapse rate is unknown. Storglaciären and Rabots glaciär in Northern Sweden were equipped with temperature measurement stations at both low and high glacier elevations over the 2014 ablation season. From these measurements, surface lapse rates 0.1 m above the glacier surface, and near-­surface lapse rates 2 m above the surface, were calculated for the two glaciers. The lapse rates were then compared to meteorological variables measured in the middle of the glaciers’ elevation range. In addition, a comparison was made with ablation data collected via ablation stakes throughout the melt season. On both Storglaciären and Rabots glaciär, the surface lapse rate is −0.28 °C (100m)−1 averaged over the ablation season. The season ­average near­-surface lapse rate is also the same for both glaciers, at −0.37 °C (100m)−1. The lapse rate values are shallow in comparison to non-­glaciated mountain areas. The meteorological variables of wind speed and precipitation affect surface lapse rate on short timescales. Long-­term patterns in surface lapse rate are influenced by incoming radiation, humidity and precipitation. In addition, topographic shading and albedo impact the incoming short­-wave radiation, causing diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in surface lapse rate. A cumulative approach to lapse rate using a positive degree day gradient reflects the pattern of ablation gradients measured through the ablation season. However, a lack of data means no robust conclusions can be drawn from this comparison. Many melt modelling studies use steeper lapse rates in ablation and mass balance modelling than observed over Storglaciären and Rabots glaciär. This can lead to underestimation of ablation at high glacier elevations. Measurements of local lapse rates recorded over glacier surfaces are necessary in order to produce more accurate ablation modelling results.