The successful resolution of inflammation requires removal of neutrophils from the inflammatory site to prevent release of histotoxic contents that may potentiate inflammatory processes and promote progression to a chronic state associated with impaired repair mechanisms and/or autoimmune responses. Macrophages are “professional” phagocytes required for rapid and efficient clearance of apoptotic neutrophils. Macrophage phagocytic capacity can be critically regulated by a number of environmental factors, including cytokines, bacterial products, and glucocorticoids. We have hypothesised that modulation of macrophage phagocytic capacity may represent an effective strategy for promoting resolution of inflammation in diseases where clearance of neutrophils may be impaired or inefficient. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying glucocorticoid-augmentation of macrophage phagocytosis. We have demonstrated that long-term exposure of human peripheral blood monocytes to the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone dramatically increases phagocytic capacity for “early” membrane-intact apoptotic neutrophils. Increased phagocytic potential was associated with a “switch” from a serum-independent to a serum-dependent apoptotic cell recognition mechanism. We initially employed an “add back” approach to rule out several well-defined opsonins in apoptotic neutrophil clearance, including immune complexes, IgG, complement proteins, pentraxin-3, fibronectin, annexin I, and platelet-derived factors. Using a multi-step purification scheme involving anion exchange and gel filtration chromatography, we purified a high molecular weight fraction that contained the prophagocytic activity of serum and analysis by mass spectrometry identified C4-binding protein as a candidate protein. C4-binding protein circulates in human plasma bound predominately in a >570kDa complex with protein S and the presence of protein S in high molecular weight fractions was confirmed by immunoblotting. We found that protein S was equivalent to unfractionated serum in its ability to enhance phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils by dexamethasone-treated monocyte-derived macrophages (Dex-MDMo) and that immunodepletion of protein S resulted in loss of prophagocytic activity. Protein S was found to opsonise apoptotic neutrophils in a calcium-dependent manner and enhanced phagocytic potential by Dex-MDMo through stimulation of Mer tyrosine kinase (Mertk), a receptor that is upregulated on the surface of Dex-MDMo compared to untreated MDMo. The studies presented in this thesis have provided novel insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms required for high capacity clearance of apoptotic neutrophils by macrophages following treatment with glucocorticoids and may form the foundations for further studies investigating glucocorticoid action for development of safer and more selective therapies.

The endothelium plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of vascular homeostasis and its dysregulation promotes vascular complications. This thesis proposes that heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an anti-inflammatory enzyme with antioxidant properties, is endothelial protective factor that prevents endothelial injury induced by cisplatin or activated neutrophils. Specifically, this thesis aimed to test (i) that overexpression of HO-1 prevents cisplatin-induced endothelial injury and suppresses caspase activity; (ii) whether neutrophil-endothelial cell activation resulted in the release of soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1) and soluble endoglin (sEng), the two anti-angiogenic factors known to induce the clinical signs of preeclampsia; (iii) whether HO-1 prevented activated neutrophils from stimulating the release of these factors from the endothelium; (iv) the relative contribution and the co-dependency of neutrophil activation and anti-angiogenic growth factors in preeclampsia where systemic endothelial dysfunction is known to occur. This thesis shows that cisplatin inhibited human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) metabolism as measured by MTT assay and resulted in the release of placenta growth factor (PlGF). Immunoblotting confirmed that cisplatin increased cleaved caspase-3 expression in HUVEC. These effects of cisplatin were attenuated in HUVEC infected with adenovirus encoding HO-1 and the effects were exacerbated when HO-1 was silenced by siRNA. Furthermore, cisplatin stimulated PlGF release was suppressed by the overexpression of HO-1. In addition, HO-1 overexpression inhibited angiogenesis as determined by vascular endothelial growth factor-induced capillary tube formation on Matrigel coated plates. Thus these studies indicate that agents which upregulate HO-1 could increase the effectiveness and tolerability to cisplatin in cancer treatment. Although neutrophils are early contributors to endothelial cell activation, no studies have determined their contribution to the release of sFlt-1 and sEng. We therefore investigated the effect of activated neutrophils on the release of sFlt-1 and sEng in endothelial/neutrophil co-cultures and in the circulation of women with normal pregnancy and preeclampsia. LPS-mediated neutrophil activation stimulated the release of sEng but not sFlt-1 from endothelial cells in culture. In the absence of neutrophils, overexpression of HO-1 in HUVEC downregulated the release of sEng. In contrast, HO-1 overexpression failed to inhibit the release of sEng in the presence of activated neutrophils. The release of sEng by activated neutrophils-endothelial cell cocultures appears to be mediated by metalloproteinases (MMP) as the broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor (GM6001) attenuated sEng release. Clinical studies demonstrated that sEng, pro-inflammatory interleukin-6 (IL-6) and the soluble markers of neutrophil activation (α-defensins and calprotectin) were all elevated in women with preeclampsia. We identified a direct correlation between neutrophil activation and IL-6 release. However, no correlation could be established between these factors and sEng release in preeclampsia. Hence, these results provide compelling clinical evidence to show that the increase in neutrophil activation and IL-6 release during preeclampsia are unlikely to significantly contribute to the clinical signs of preeclampsia as they fail to correlate directly with the anti-angiogenic factors, which form the final common pathway to the clinical signs of preeclampsia and systemic endothelial dysfunction.

Neutrophils migrate rapidly towards a site of inflammation and mediate bacterial killing through highly regulated pathways that involve the phagocytosis of bacteria and the generation of reactive oxygen species by the NADPH oxidase complex. The Rac small GTPases have prominent roles in the regulation of neutrophil signaling pathways but the research strategies used to analyze their functions in live cells have been limited, since neutrophils are terminally differentiated and difficult to manipulate genetically. In this thesis, I describe a novel high efficiency protocol for transiently transfecting neutrophils that allowed me to investigate the roles of Rac1 and Rac2 in neutrophils in a completely new way, in real time. Using this technique, I show that a bacterial protein known to inhibit chemotaxis in vitro, selectively inhibits Rac1 activation downstream of fMLP stimulation and inhibits neutrophils polarization. Further dissecting the roles of Rac isoforms, I used various approaches to show that Rac1 and Rac2 differentially regulate free-barbed end (FBE) formation downstream of the fMLP receptor. Rac1 is responsible for ~30% of FBE whereas Rac2 is the regulator of FBE formation (~70%) through the activation of cofilin and Arp2/3. Finally, these observations led to the analysis of the mechanisms underlying the Rac1 and Rac2 functions. I show that membrane charge determines Rac1 and Rac2 differential localization during phagocytosis and chemotaxis iii based on their different aminoacid residues in the polybasic domain. This mechanism depends on lipid metabolism and the accumulation of negatively charged lipids at cellular membranes. During chemotaxis, neutrophils have a polarized accumulation of negatively charged lipids at the leading edge membrane that selectively recruit Rac1. In contrast, the lipid metabolism that occurs at the phagosome membrane decreases its negativity and selectively recruits Rac2. All together, this thesis describes the study of primary neutrophil functions from a new angle and adds some valuable information to the comprehension of effective neutrophil activation based on the analysis of Rac isoforms.

Neutrófilos são a primeira linha de defesa do sistema imunológico, eles produzem substâncias microbicidas, tais como espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO), são capazes de eliminar patógenos e possuem papel importante em processos inflamatórios fisiológicos e patológicos. No entanto, os efeitos benéficos e nocivos mediados por esta célula dependem, em grande parte, do equilíbrio redox, que se estabelece entre a produção de ERO e a ação de antioxidantes. A quebra deste equilíbrio leva ao estresse oxidativo, capaz de causar danos pelas ERO sobre as estruturas biológicas. Sendo assim, a regulação das funções dos neutrófilos é um importante alvo terapêutico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a ação de produtos naturais - extrato bruto, frações e subfrações - oriundas da Antártica na regulação do metabolismo oxidativo de neutrófilos humanos. Para este propósito, o extrato bruto da alga Palmaria decipiens, nove (9) frações do fungo endofítico Aspergillus unguis e nove (9) subfrações deste foram estudadas. As amostras foram avaliadas quanto à atividade scavenger, utilizando-se o 2,2-difenil-?-picrilhidrazil; à citotoxidade aos neutrófilos, por análise da viabilidade celular com o ensaio de exclusão do Azul de Trypan; e ao efeito sobre a produção de ERO pelos neutrófilos, medida por quimiluminescência dependente de luminol, utilizando-se forbol-12-miristato-13-acetato como estímulo para os neutrófilos. Os resultados mostraram que: 1) nenhuma das amostras apresentou atividade scavenger; 2) a viabilidade celular manteve-se igual ou maior que 90% quando neutrófilos foram expostos às frações FR5, FR6*, FR8, e às subfrações contendo 100% Acetato de Etila, 10% Acetato de Etila:Hexano, 20% Acetato de Etila:Hexano e 40% Acetato de Etila:Hexano; 3) dentre as frações que mostraram viabilidade celular maior que 90%, a inibição da produção de ERO pelos neutrófilos foi observada com a FR5 (51%), a FR6* (20%), a subfração 100% Hexano (73%), a subfração 20% Acetato de Etila/Hexano (42%) e a subfração 40% Acetato de Etila/Hexano (38%). Os resultados mostram que algumas das frações e subfrações do fungo endofítico Aspergillus unguis apresentaram inibição da produção de ERO pelos neutrófilos humanos entre (20 a 73%). Esta inibição não é por atividade scavenger de radiciais de oxigênio, sugerindo que este efeito regulador sobre o neutrófilo possa resultar da atividade dos componentes nestas frações sobre outras vias metabólicas desta célula. A partir destes resultados, faz-se necessário identificar a composição destas frações e seus efeitos sobre vias metabólicas e sobre outras funções efetoras dos neutrófilos. A contribuição deste estudo é a procura por moléculas bioativas, capazes de regular parcialmente as respostas do neutrófilo, para restabelecer o equilíbrio funcional desta célula em estados patológicos, diminuindo seus efeitos nocivos sem prejuízo do seu papel crucial para a homeostase. / Neutrophils are the first line of defense of the immune system, they produce microbicidal substances, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), able to eliminate pathogens and play important roles in physiological and pathological inflammatory processes. However, the beneficial and harmful effects mediated by this cell depend on the redox balance, which is established between the production of ROS and the action of antioxidants. The imbalance leads to oxidative stress capable of causing damage by ROS on biological structures. Thus, the regulation of neutrophil functions is an important therapeutic target. The aim of this work was to evaluate the action of natural products - crude extract, fractions and subfractions - originating from Antarctica environment in the regulation of the oxidative metabolism of human neutrophils. For this purpose, the crude extract of the Palmaria decipiens algae, nine (9) fractions of the endophytic fungus Aspergillus unguis and nine (9) subfractions from this fungus were studied. The samples were evaluated for scavenger activity using 2,2-diphenyl-?-picrylhydrazyl; cytotoxicity to neutrophils, by cellular viability analysis with the Trypan Blue exclusion assay; and to the effect on neutrophil production of ROS, as measured by luminol-dependent chemiluminescence, using phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate as a stimulus for neutrophils. The results showed that: 1) none of the samples had scavenger activity; 2) the cell viability remained equal to or greater than 90% when neutrophils were exposed to fractions FR5, FR6*, FR8, and subfractions containing 100% Ethyl Acetate, 10% Ethyl Acetate:Hexane, 20% Ethyl Acetate:Hexane and 40% Ethyl Acetate:Hexane; 3) among the fractions that showed cellular viability greater than 90%, the inhibition of ROS production by neutrophils was observed with FR5 (51%), FR6* (20%), subfraction 100% Hexane (73%), the subfraction 20% Ethyl acetate / Hexane (42%) and subfraction 40% Ethyl acetate / Hexane (38%). The results show that some of the fractions and subfractions of the endophytic fungus Aspergillus unguis showed inhibition of ROS production by human neutrophils between (20 to 73%). This inhibition is not by scavenger activity of oxygen radicals, suggesting that this regulatory effect on the neutrophil may result from the activity of the components in these fractions on other metabolic pathways of this cell. From these results, it is necessary to identify the composition of these fractions and their effects on metabolic pathways and on other effector functions of neutrophils. The contribution of this study is the search for bioactive molecules, able to partially regulate neutrophil responses, to restore the functional balance of this cell in pathological states, reducing its harmful effects without prejudice to its crucial role for homeostasis.

Released in response to cellular activation, microvesicles are a major vector mechanism for the delivery of protein, nucleic acid and bioactive lipid payloads in local tissues and plasma. Large numbers of microvesicles (including those from neutrophils) are found within inflammatory sites, such as the rheumatoid synovium. Human neutrophil microvesicles promote tissue protection, and in some cases repair, by affecting function and phenotype of other inflammatory cells. Of these, tissue macrophages are central to the recovery of homeostasis after an inflammatory insult. The data herein indicate that microvesicles released by activated neutrophils impede lipopolysaccharide and interferon gamma-induced \M1-like" polarisation of macrophages via phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) exposure, and induce annexin A1-dependent release of transforming growth factor beta (TGFb). Macrophages treated with these vesicles stimulate the production of cartilage matrix from chondrocytes, and are unable to induce an inflammatory phenotype in fi broblasts. The efficacy of these vesicles is reproduced in two in vivo models of acute inflammation, zymosan-induced peritonits and K/BxN serum-transfer arthritis. Finally, the possibility of using both autologous, and cell-line-derived microvesicles as pharmacodynamic tools is explored. Microvesicles generated from neutrophils from patients with rheumatoid arthritis are found to be protective, and can outcompete the pro-inflammatory effects of both platelet microvesicles, and those isolated from synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. By building on the observation that anxA1 on microvesicles stimulates TGFb release in macrophages, a cell line was transfected to release anxA1+ microvesicles, and their e ects compared to those of their wild type counterparts.

A coleta de hemocomponentes por equipamentos de aférese tem aumentado muito nos últimos anos, sendo considerado um avanço na medicina transfusional, pois possibilita a retirada de um ou mais componentes de um doador único resultando em um hemocomponente padronizado e de alta qualidade. No entanto, os intervalos entre as doações de plaquetaférese em geral são curtos, podendo haver perda de células a cada doação e potencial desregulação do sistema hematopoiético. Pode ocorrer ainda um possível efeito patogênico após passagem das células pelo equipamento de aférese e ativação neutrofílica. Diante disso, há a preocupação se isso acarretaria riscos à saúde do doador em longo prazo. Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a perda da expressão de proteínas ancoradas ao glicosilfosfatidilinositol (GPI), presença de clone HPN (hemoglobinúria paroxística noturna) e ativação de neutrófilos em doadores de plaquetaférese de repetição. Métodos: Estudo de caso controle, sendo 44 amostras de doadores de plaquetaférese de repetição e 44 doadores de sangue total controle. Foram coletadas amostras de sangue periférico, marcadas com os anticorpos monoclonais CD157, CD45, CD64, CD10 e FLAER (do inglês, Fluorescent Aerolysin, aerolisina fluorescente) e analisadas por citometria de fluxo. Para análise de ativação de neutrófilos, foram analisadas 17 amostras de doadores de plaquetaférese de repetição e 17 amostras de doadores de sangue total marcadas com CD64. Conclusão: Não foram encontradas alterações significativas na expressão das proteínas ancoradas ao GPI e na expressão de CD64 entre os doadores de plaquetaférese de repetição e os controles. Sugere-se que a doação de plaquetaférese de repetição não altera a expressão de proteínas ancoradas ao GPI, não gera clone HPN tampouco altera a expressão de CD64. Palavras-chave: plaquetaférese, GPI, HPN, ativação de neutrófilos. / The collection of hemocomponents through apheresis equipment has increased much in recent years, which is considered an advance in transfusion medicine because it enables the withdrawal of one or more components from a single donor, resulting in a standardized and high-quality hemocomponent. Nonetheless, the intervals between the plateletpheresis donations are generally short, which can cause loss of cells in each donation and potential dysregulation of the hematopoietic system. What can also happen is a possible pathogenic effect after the transit of the cells through the apheresis equipment and neutrophilic activation. In light of this situation, there is the concern about whether that brings risks to the donor’s health, in the long term. Objective: the objective of this study was to evaluate the loss in the expression of some glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored (GPI-anchored) proteins, the presence of PNH clone and neutrophils activation in repeated plateletpheresis donors. Methods: Case-control study using 44 samples of donors of repeated plateletpheresis and 44 samples of donors of whole-blood donors as controls. Peripheral blood samples were collected into tubes containing EDTA, marked with CD157, CD45, CD64, CD10 and FLAER monoclonal antibodies, and analyzed by flow cytometry. For the analysis of neutrophil activation, 17 samples of repeated plateletpheresis donors and 17 samples of whole-blood donors, both marked with CD64 were analyzed. Conclusion: No alteration in the expression of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins and in the CD64 expression was found. It is suggested that repeated plateletpheresis donation does not alter the expression of GPI-anchored proteins, does not generate PNH clone and neither alters the expression of CD64.

L’élimination des polynucléaires neutrophiles (PN) du site inflammatoire est nécessaire à la résolution de l’inflammation. Lors de cette phase, les PN s’engagent massivement vers l’apoptose et sont phagocytés par les macrophages. Dans certaines pathologies inflammatoires comme le syndrome de détresse respiratoire aiguë (SDRA), un défaut des mécanismes d’apoptose des PN est associé à la persistance de l’inflammation et à un mauvais pronostic. GILZ (Glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper) est une protéine possédant des propriétés anti-inflammatoires, basées principalement sur l’inhibition des facteurs de transcription, comme NF-кB (nuclear factor-kappa B) et AP-1 (activator protein-1). GILZ module également la survie des cellules hématopoïétiques, en favorisant ou retardant l’apoptose selon le type cellulaire étudié. L’objectif de ce travail a été d’évaluer le rôle de GILZ dans les fonctions et l’apoptose du PN lors de l’inflammation. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes intéressés aux situations physiopathologiques dans lesquelles GILZ pouvait être exprimé et plus spécifiquement dans le syndrome de détresse respiratoire aiguë (SDRA). Cette pathologie a retenu notre attention pour le caractère systémique de l’inflammation et surtout pour le rôle prépondérant que jouent les neutrophiles dans ce syndrome. Dans le cadre d’une étude clinique prospective menée à l’hôpital Bichat, nous avons pu montrer une plus forte expression de GILZ au niveau transcriptionnel et protéique dans des neutrophiles circulants de patients souffrant de SDRA.Dans la deuxième partie du travail, nous avons évalué le rôle de GILZ dans les fonctions et le phénotype des PN. En utilisant la lignée PLB-985 différenciée en neutrophiles par addition d’acide rétinoïque (ATRA) et de diméthylformamide (DMF), nous avons mis en évidence in vitro que la surexpression de GILZ dans ce modèle de polynucléaires neutrophiles favorisait l’apoptose de ces cellules. Cette apoptose est dépendante des caspases, implique la voie mitochondriale et s’explique notamment par une diminution de l’expression de Mcl-1 (myeloid cell leukemia-1), alors que l’expression des ARNm de mcl-1 n’est pas affectée. Une activation prolongée de JNK (c-JUN N-terminal kinase) serait impliquée et entraînerait la phosphorylation de Mcl-1 et sa dégradation par le protéasome. Ces deux résultats laissent entrevoir un rôle potentiel de GILZ dans la résolution de l’inflammation in vivo. Pour adresser cette question, nous mettons en place le modèle de l’ALI (Acute Lung Injury) ou inflammation pulmonaire aiguë induite par le LPS (lipopolysaccharide), qui est un modèle murin du SDRA. Nous utilisons des souris dans lesquelles l’expression de GILZ a été invalidée spécifiquement dans les neutrophiles. Cette approche nous permettra de mieux comprendre le rôle de GILZ dans la résolution de l’inflammation. GILZ pourrait ainsi représenter une cible thérapeutique dans les pathologies inflammatoires impliquant le PN. / Elimination of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PN) from inflammatory site is a necessary step in the resolution of inflammation, where PN undergo massive apoptosis and are phagocyted by macrophages. In some inflammatory disorders, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), defective apoptosis of neutrophils was described and related to persistent inflammation and poor prognosis. GILZ (Glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper) is a potent anti-inflammatory protein, mainly through inhibition of NF-кB (nuclear factor-kappa B) and AP-1 (activator protein-1) transcription factors. Moreover, GILZ modulates hematopoietic cells survival, either by preventing or inducing their apoptosis. The overall objective of this work has been to evaluate the role of GILZ in neutrophils functions and apoptosis during inflammation. First, we sought pathophysiological situations where GILZ could be expressed. ARDS caught our attention because of the systemic nature of inflammation and the prominent role of neutrophils. A prospective clinical study was conducted at Bichat hospital and showed a higher GILZ expression at protein and transcriptional levels in blood neutrophils of ARDS patients.Secondly, we evaluated the role of GILZ in neutrophils functions and phenotypes. Using the PLB-985 cell line induced towards the neutrophil lineage using all trans retinoic acid (ATRA) and dimethylformamid (DMF), we evidenced that GILZ over-expression promoted exacerbated apoptosis of these cells. This apoptosis was caspase-dependent, involved the mitochondrial pathway and was explained, at least in part, by a diminution of myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) expression, whereas mcl-1 mRNA levels were not affected. A sustained activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) could be involved and lead to Mcl-1 phosphorylation and subsequent degradation by the proteasome machinery.Altogether, these results suggest a potential role of GILZ in the resolution of inflammation in vivo. To address this question, we currently develop an acute lung injury (ALI) model induced by lipopolysaccharides, which mimics the septic component of ARDS. This model will be implemented in mice invalidated for GILZ specifically in neutrophils. This approach should allow a better understanding of the role of GILZ in the resolution of inflammation. In the future, GILZ could represent a therapeutical target in inflammatory diseases involving neutrophils.

Efferocytosis, the clearance of apoptotic cells including apoptotic neutrophils by macrophage phagocytosis, is a key cellular mechanism for resolution of inflammation and tissue repair. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) 7 and 9 phosphorylate RNA polymerase II that is vital for neutrophil transcriptional capacity. CDK inhibitors such as R-roscovitine, and the more selective inhibitor AT7519, induce neutrophil apoptosis and promote resolution of several mouse models of inflammation including acute lung inflammation. The hypothesis investigated here was that AT7519 would promote neutrophil apoptosis (i) in the infarcted heart, leading to macrophage polarisation, angiogenesis, reduced infarct expansion and retention of cardiac function and (ii) in the peritoneum, enhancing resolution of sterile peritonitis. AT7519 (1μM) induced apoptosis of mouse unstimulated-bone marrow derived neutrophils and thioglycollate-stimulated neutrophils in vitro in a time- and caspase-dependent manner, but did not alter activation assessed by calcium flux in response to the synthetic formyl peptide (fMLF) or platelet-activating factor (PAF). Only high concentrations of AT7519 (10 μM) induced monocyte/macrophage apoptosis and this was likely due to saturated phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils induced by high concentration of AT7519. Myocardial infarction (MI) was induced by coronary artery ligation in adult male mice and infarct volume was assessed 7 or 21 days later by in vitro optical projection tomography (OPT). The novel use of OPT for this purpose was validated by demonstrating correlation with infarct volume obtained by late-gadolinium enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in vivo and with infarct area assessed by histological staining (Masson’s Trichrome) in tissue sections. AT7519 (30 mg/kg i.p.) increased the number of apoptotic neutrophils (cleaved caspase-3 and Ly6G +ve) in the heart when administered after MI, but this was not associated with any subsequent alteration in macrophage polarisation, vessel density, infarct expansion or structural and functional remodelling of the left ventricle. In contrast, induction of neutrophil apoptosis by AT7519 (30mg/kg i.p.) successfully promoted macrophage polarisation and the resolution of inflammation associated with peritonitis elicited by either 10% thioglycollate or by 1mg zymosan. AT7519 treatment also reduced the number of CD19+ B cells, Foxp3+CD4+ T cells and eosinophils in peritoneal lavage, and prolonged the phase of monocyte recruitment in zymosan-induced peritonitis. In conclusion, AT7519 successfully induced mouse neutrophil apoptosis in vitro, as well as in vivo in experimental MI and peritonitis. Subsequent promotion of inflammation resolution in peritonitis was not matched by improved outcome following MI. Unexpected effects of CDK inhibition on monocytes, T cells and eosinophils that are necessary for myocardial infarct repair may have compromised any beneficial effects resulting from promotion of in situ neutrophil apoptosis. CDK inhibition may therefore have therapeutic potential for the treatment of peritonitis, but not for prevention of infarct expansion and detrimental ventricular remodelling after MI.

Neutrophils are an important cell in host defence and migrate rapidly to sites of inflammation when the host is compromised (e.g., in infection or wounding). There, they produce and/or release inflammatory mediators (e.g., LTB4, TNF, IL-8) and ingest and degrade pathogens (e.g., by release of granule proteins and reactive oxygen species). Neutrophils then undergo apoptosis and are cleared by phagocytes such as macrophages, to allow efficient resolution of inflammation. Inducing neutrophil apoptosis by pharmacological means could be a therapeutic strategy to dampen inflammation in diseases where neutrophils are prevalent, e.g., acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) using CDK inhibitor (CDKi) compounds induces mammalian neutrophil apoptosis in vitro, and can drive resolution of inflammation in vivo in mouse models. Evidence indicated that this is due to inhibition of CDK9 and CDK7-mediated transcription of the anti-apoptotic protein Mcl-1. The hypothesis of this project was that CDK9, CDK7 and Mcl-1 are pivotal regulators of resolution of inflammation in vivo. The model selected to test this hypothesis was tailfin injury of embryonic zebrafish (Danio rerio). Zebrafish are optically transparent and reporter transgenic lines with neutrophils labelled by enhanced GFP (EGFP - Tg[mpx:EGFP]i114) and macrophages (Tg[MPEG1:mCherry]) have been created, permitting the imaging of the behaviour of these cells in vivo. The model of tailfin transection was chosen to cause an inflammatory response in these animals, with neutrophil and macrophage recruitment to the tailfin. This response was manipulated using CDKi compounds and specific gene knockdowns (using morpholino and CRISPR/cas9 technologies). It was shown that CDKi compounds could reduce neutrophil numbers at 24 h post-injury at the transected tailfin, but did not affect macrophage numbers. The CDKi AT7519 increased neutrophil apoptosis at 12 h post-injury. Specific CDK9 knockdown using morpholinos or CRISPR/cas9 also reduced neutrophilic inflammation at the tailfin 24 h after transection, accompanied by increased apoptosis levels at 8 h in the morpholino-treated group. Inhibition of an endogenous CDK9 inhibitor, LaRP7, had the opposite effect and increased neutrophil numbers; and could oppose the neutrophil- reducing effect of AT7519 and CDK9 morpholino knockdown. Preliminary genetic knockdown studies into the roles of CDK7 and Mcl-1 have been carried out. Taken together, the results demonstrate CDK9 is important in the resolution of neutrophilic inflammation, indicating that manipulation of CDK9 activity could be a good target for therapeutic intervention in inflammatory disease.

Orientador: Silvio Luis de Oliveira / Banca: Marcelo De Franco / Banca: Angela Maria Victoriano de Campos Soares / Resumo: Camundongos selecionados para a máxima (AIRmax) ou mínima (AIRmin) reação inflamatória aguda apresentam desvio de freqüência do gene Slc11a1. Este gene está envolvido no transporte de íons divalentes no compartimento endossomal/lisossomal de macrófagos e neutrófilos, interferindo na sua ativação e suscetibilidade a infecções. Neste estudo, nós investigamos a interação dos alelos Slc11a1 R (Slc11a1rGly169) e S (expressão nula da proteína Slc11a1, Slc11a1sAsp169) com os loci de características quantitativas (QTL) moduladores da inflamação, durante a paracoccidioidomicose (PCM) em linhagens AIRmaxRR, AIRmaxSS, AIRminRR and AIRminSS homozigotas para o gene Slc11a1, produzidas por acasalamentos assistidos por genotipagem. Nós verificamos que o alelo R em homozigose foi responsável por um maior influxo neutrofílico em camundongos com background AIRmax. Observamos ainda, que as linhagens AIRmaxRR e AIRmaxSS foram mais resistentes enquanto a linhagem AIRmin portadora do alelo R foi implicada em uma maior recuperação de UFC de P. brasiliensis. Desta forma, apesar de não observarmos diferença na recuperação de UFC entre as sublinhagens AIRmax, um aumento no influxo de neutrófilos para o pulmão dos animais AIRmaxRR pode ter compensado a influência do alelo Slc11a1 R na multiplicação do fungo. Nós também mostramos que o número de UFC nos pulmões foi relacionado a síntese de IL-4 e IL-10 neste órgão, mas a produção de óxido nítrico foi semelhante em ambas as linhagens mostrando que este metabólito não foi o fator determinante de resistência/suscetibilidade nas linhagens analisadas. Quanto a análise de diferentes citocinas em sobrenadante de cultura de células do baço e no pulmão das linhagens utilizadas, mostramos que o gene modula a síntese de várias citocinas, porém... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Mice selected for the maximum (AIRmax) or minimum (AIRmin) acute inflammatory reaction show disequilibrium of the Slc11a1 gene. This gene is involved in the transport of divalent ions at the endosomal/lysosomal compartment within macrophages and neutrophils, interfering in their activation and susceptibility to infections. In this study, we investigated the interaction of the Slc11a1 R (Slc11a1rGly169) and S (null Slc11a1 protein expression, Slc11a1sAsp169) alleles with the Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) modulated-inflammation during paracoccidioidomycosis in homozygous AIRmaxRR, AIRmaxSS, AIRminRR and AIRminSS lines produced by genotype-assisted breedings. It could be verified that R allele in homozygosis is associated with a more intense neutrophil influx in AIRmax background. The AIRmax lines showed to be more resistant wile AIRmin bearing allele R implicated in a higher recovered P. brasiliensis CFU. Although, the increase of neutrophil influx to the lungs in AIRmaxRR mice can be compensating the influence of Slc11a1 R allele in P. brasilinsis multiplication. We have also observed that the number of CFU in lungs was not related to NO production but instead to modulation of IL-4 and IL-10 synthesis in the lungs. Moreover, we present the effect of Slc11a1 modulating the release of differents cytokines in both supernatant of spleen cells and lungs, but this effect was time-dependent and change in accordance of host genetic background and microenviroment produced by immune response during P. brasiliensis infection. In conclusion, these findings suggest that the lower PMN leukocyte infiltration to the lungs and Slc11a1 R genotype seemed to be a decisive factor in determining the susceptibility profiles in P.brasiliensis infection. / Mestre