The long call frequency of male mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) varies across individuals. In a forest environment where visual contact is impossible at greater distances the long call is utilized for inter-group spacing and for male-male communication. As lower frequencies are capable of traveling longer distances, it is quite possible that there is a correlation between group size and long call frequency. This link lies in the premise that smaller groups have fewer individuals thus fewer males, and spread out less over the course of each day while obtaining food resources, thus the distance these males call over their lifespan is generally less than the males in a larger group. This thesis investigates the relationship between group size and long call frequency in mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) on Isla de Ometepé, Nicaragua. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.A.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2013.

In Central America, two conflicting narratives are used to describe the relationship between forest cover and water availability, with implications for management of water resources throughout the region. Many resource managers believe forests increase dry season water availability, but scientific consensus refutes this perspective. This study analyzes the narratives explaining the relationship between forest cover and dry season water yields in Central America and how they influence resource management. In a case study of the Sasle catchment in Nicaragua, I use a combination of satellite imagery analysis and SWAT hydrologic modeling to investigate land use change over the past 25 years and the potential impact of these changes on the hydrology of the catchment. False perceptions of the role of land cover in hydrology are influencing management practices in sensitive headwater catchments and creating unintended results. A broader perspective on the socio-political and scientific context of these narratives is needed.

In this time of the oversaturated market, every company that doesn't want to focus only on domestic market has to start thinking about expanding abroad. But there is not enough information about every country and Nicaragua belongs to that group of unknown countries. The aim of this thesis is to make it easier for investors to decide whether to enter their market or not or at least drag their attention to Nicaragua. This thesis is divided into 5 main chapters -- general information about the country and its inhabitants, the second chapter provides the information about the economy and financial situation of the country, third and fourth chapter are dedicated to distinctiveness of the Nicaraguan culture and business. The last chapter shows 3 different analyses of the market that are also applied to the Nicaraguan market.

O objetivo dessa pesquisa é explicar quais os motivos que levaram os ativistas da Frente San-dinista de Libertação Nacional (FSLN) da Nicarágua a se engajarem em um movimento de alto risco. Argumenta-se que o recrutamento ocorreu nas diferentes fases do movimento e, para explicá-lo, foram reconstruídas as oportunidades políticas para o surgimento da Frente Sandinista; as razões da escolha do repertório de confronto violento; a combinação desse re-pertório com outro não violento; o processo de constituição da liderança de Carlos Fonseca e seu papel angular na construção dos enquadramentos interpretativos sandinistas que atraíram os ativistas para a mobilização. A dissertação analisa também o perfil sociopolítico de ativis-tas de alto risco atuantes no caso estudado, aferindo suas semelhanças e diferenças em compa-ração com participantes de outros movimentos revolucionários latino-americanos. Procura-se identificar fatores individuais e estruturais que levaram esses ativistas a se decidirem por tal tipo de engajamento. Foram utilizadas técnicas de pesquisa quantitativa e qualitativa para ana-lisar 121 entrevistas em profundidade das e dos ativistas da Frente Sandinista. Os resultados afiançam que os motivos para engajamento no ativismo de alto risco foram: uma profunda identificação com o antissomozismo propalado pelo movimento, facilitada pela disponibilida-de biográfica dos ativistas e por seus laços sociais, prévios ao seu engajamento, em particular vínculos organizacionais, com os movimentos estudantil e religioso, e vínculos pessoais, via amigos e familiares. / The objective of this research is to explain the motives that led the activists of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) of Nicaragua to engage in a high-risk movement. As re-cruitment occurred in different phases of the movement, it was rebuilt the political opportuni-ties for the emergence of the Sandinista Front; the reasons for the choice of violent confronta-tion repertoire; the combination of this repertoire with a nonviolent repertoire; the leadership of Carlos Fonseca and its angular role in the construction of the Sandinistas interpretive frameworks that attracted activists to mobilize. Once rebuilt the movement\'s bases, analyzed the overall profile and high risk of activists, assessing their similarities and differences com-pared to participants from other Latin American revolutionary movements; and individual and structural factors that led these activists decided on this type of engagement. Quantitative and qualitative research techniques were used to analyze 121 in-depth interviews of activists and the Sandinista Front. The results bail that the reasons for engaging in high-risk activism were a deep identification with the anti-somozismo movement, facilitated by biographical availabil-ity of activists and their social ties, organizational and individual, prior to their engagement. Ties with the student movement and religious prevail between (the) recruited (them), as well as strong ties with friends and family.

O objetivo geral desta dissertação é aplicar a metodologia de Planejamento Integrado de Recursos para o sistema elétrico da Nicarágua, analisando o período entre 2013-2030. Na primeira parte, são apresentadas características do sistema elétrico e a necessidade da aplicação do PIR. Na segunda parte, são avaliados três programas de eficiência energética em andamento: substituição de dois milhões de lâmpadas incandescentes por fluorescente compacta, substituição de lâmpadas de vapor de mercúrio por vapor de sódio na iluminação pública e substituição de 20.000 lâmpadas T12 por T8 e T5 no setor público. Cada um desses programas foi avaliado em comparação com o uso da tecnologia LED disponível. Além disso, foram avaliadas as opções de oferta, empregando curvas de seleção e a curva de duração de carga. Foi incluída uma avaliação de sistemas fotovoltaicos ligados à rede, para o setor residencial, como opção de geração distribuída. Finalmente, os programas de eficiência energética são integrados com as ofertas de geração através de índices como o Fator de Carga da Conservação (FCC). / The main objective of this dissertation is to apply the methodology of Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) for the electric system of Nicaragua. Period 2013-2030. In the first part, some characteristics of the electrical system and the need for implementation of IRP are presented. In the second part, 3 ongoing energy efficiency programs are assessed: replacing of 2 million incandescent bulbs with Compact Fluorescent Lamps, mercury vapor lamps by sodium vapor lamps for street lighting and replacing 20,000 T12 lamps with T8 and T5 in the public sector. Each of these programs was evaluated by comparing with the available LED technology. Moreover, the supply options were evaluated using screening curves and the load duration curve. An evaluation of PV grid connected systems for residential sector was included. Finally, energy efficiency programs are integrated with supply options trough merit figures as the Conservation Load Factor (CLF).

O objetivo dessa pesquisa é explicar quais os motivos que levaram os ativistas da Frente San-dinista de Libertação Nacional (FSLN) da Nicarágua a se engajarem em um movimento de alto risco. Argumenta-se que o recrutamento ocorreu nas diferentes fases do movimento e, para explicá-lo, foram reconstruídas as oportunidades políticas para o surgimento da Frente Sandinista; as razões da escolha do repertório de confronto violento; a combinação desse re-pertório com outro não violento; o processo de constituição da liderança de Carlos Fonseca e seu papel angular na construção dos enquadramentos interpretativos sandinistas que atraíram os ativistas para a mobilização. A dissertação analisa também o perfil sociopolítico de ativis-tas de alto risco atuantes no caso estudado, aferindo suas semelhanças e diferenças em compa-ração com participantes de outros movimentos revolucionários latino-americanos. Procura-se identificar fatores individuais e estruturais que levaram esses ativistas a se decidirem por tal tipo de engajamento. Foram utilizadas técnicas de pesquisa quantitativa e qualitativa para ana-lisar 121 entrevistas em profundidade das e dos ativistas da Frente Sandinista. Os resultados afiançam que os motivos para engajamento no ativismo de alto risco foram: uma profunda identificação com o antissomozismo propalado pelo movimento, facilitada pela disponibilida-de biográfica dos ativistas e por seus laços sociais, prévios ao seu engajamento, em particular vínculos organizacionais, com os movimentos estudantil e religioso, e vínculos pessoais, via amigos e familiares. / The objective of this research is to explain the motives that led the activists of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) of Nicaragua to engage in a high-risk movement. As re-cruitment occurred in different phases of the movement, it was rebuilt the political opportuni-ties for the emergence of the Sandinista Front; the reasons for the choice of violent confronta-tion repertoire; the combination of this repertoire with a nonviolent repertoire; the leadership of Carlos Fonseca and its angular role in the construction of the Sandinistas interpretive frameworks that attracted activists to mobilize. Once rebuilt the movement\'s bases, analyzed the overall profile and high risk of activists, assessing their similarities and differences com-pared to participants from other Latin American revolutionary movements; and individual and structural factors that led these activists decided on this type of engagement. Quantitative and qualitative research techniques were used to analyze 121 in-depth interviews of activists and the Sandinista Front. The results bail that the reasons for engaging in high-risk activism were a deep identification with the anti-somozismo movement, facilitated by biographical availabil-ity of activists and their social ties, organizational and individual, prior to their engagement. Ties with the student movement and religious prevail between (the) recruited (them), as well as strong ties with friends and family.

In developed countries, suicidal behaviour is recognised as a significant public health problem among young people, but there are few studies from developing countries on this subject. The present thesis aims at estimating the extent of the problem and at exploring factors related to suicidal behaviour among young people in a developing country, Nicaragua, using a combined quantitative and qualitative approach. Three studies were conducted between 1999 and 2006. In the first study, all hospital admitted suicide attempt cases in the area of León were assessed over a three year period. Secondly, a qualitative study using individual in-depth interviews was conducted with eight girls aged between 12 and 19 admitted to hospital after attempting suicide. Thirdly, a study using the Attitudes Towards Suicides (ATTS) questionnaire was conducted in a community based sample of 278 young people aged 15-24 years to assess own suicidal behaviours, attitudes towards suicide as well as exposure to suicidal behaviour among significant others. The hospital surveillance showed that suicide attempt rates were highest among females in the age group 15-19 years with a female rate three times that of males (302.9 versus 98.9 per 100,000 inhabits per year). Drug intoxication and pesticides were the most commonly used methods for the attempts. A consistent seasonal variation with peaks in May-June and September-October was found in each of the three years, possibly related to exam periods in schools. Findings in the qualitative approach led to a tentative model for pathways to suicidal behaviour based on four main categories: Structuring conditions, triggering events, emotions and action taken. Dysfunctional families, lack of confidential and trustworthy contacts and interpersonal conflicts followed by emotions of shame and anger were some important components in the model. The community studies showed that suicidal expressions (life-weariness, death wishes, suicidal ideation, suicide plans and suicide attempts) were common among young people where more than 44.8% of males and 47.4% of females reported some kind of suicidal expression. Gender differences were small. Exposure to suicidal behaviour among others was associated with higher levels of self-reported suicidal behaviour. The attitude study showed that boys had less pro-preventive attitudes than girls, possibly indicating their higher risk for completed suicide. Exposure to suicidal behaviour and own suicidal behaviour showed an association with specific patterns of attitudes. The findings should be taken into consideration when planning for prevention of suicidal behaviour among young people in a developing country like Nicaragua.

Financial literacy is the ability to understand how money works, it refers to the set of skills and knowledge that allows an individual to make informed and effective decisions with all of their financial resources. Raising financial literacy levels is a major concern around the world, because it affects how people save, spend, and invest, as well as their ability to create and grow income. However, Nicaragua is far behind. I started working under the assumption that financial literacy levels in Nicaragua were very low, because of a series of factors. Among them, the macro and micro economic conditions –including poverty level and education-, the unawareness from the government of the importance of financial literacy in people’s lives, the lack of financial advisors nationwide, etc. To prove my theory, I decided to do a 25 question, online survey in Nicaragua. During a one week period, 343 people from all age ranges answered it and provided me with insights that allowed me to analyze their financial health, as well as their relationship with money. The three main objectives I was looking to accomplish with the survey were: to determine the current situation of financial literacy in Nicaragua, to evaluate the market’s needs regarding personal finance, and to assess the potential market for a personal finance in advisor. After reviewing the particular socio-economic conditions of the country, I guide you through the questionnaire Nicaraguans had to answer, and provide results and analysis based on them. The lack of financial culture in the country is evident from the beginning till the end of the questionnaire, but the results offer a starting point to increase financial literacy levels. Some of the main conclusions delivered by this analysis are that people tend to overestimate their financial knowledge and rate their performance and actions better than they actually are, and that most of them are eager to learn about personal finance and lead a healthier financial life.

Background: Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pervasive, worldwide public health problem and one of the most common violations of human rights. The aim of this thesis were twofold: (i) to study the process and factors related to ending of IPV of Nicaraguan women and (ii) to examine to what extent IPV exposure is associated with the child linear growth and women’s contraceptive use after pregnancy. Methods: Data were collected from a panel study which followed 398 women who were inquired about their IPV exposure during pregnancy and at follow-up a median of 43 months after delivery. Three hundred seventy five of their children were available for anthropometric assessment. Thirteen in-depth interviews were conducted with women exposed to physical/sexual IPV during pregnancy but not at follow-up. For analysis both quantitative and qualitative methodologies were used. Results: Women experienced four patterns of abuse: never abused, ending abuse, continued abuse, and new abuse. Of the women who experienced any IPV before or during pregnancy, 59% (95% CI 52-65%) reported no abuse at follow-up (135/229).  Women exposed to a continued abuse pattern and those exposed to any IPV, emotional or physical IPV at follow-up had higher odds of reversible contraceptive use. Further, exposure to any IPV and controlling behavior by a partner during pregnancy impaired the index child linear growth. Girls whose mothers had low social resources during pregnancy were the most affected. Women felt that being inquired about IPV while pregnant contributed to process of ending the abuse. Ending IPV was experienced as a process with three phases: “I came to a turning point,” “I changed,” and the “Relationship ended or changed.” Successful strategies to ending abuse mainly involved utilizing informal networks. Ending IPV did not always mean ending the relationship. IPV awareness, severity of the abuse, and economic independence were individual factors associated with ending of abuse. At the relationship level, diminishing or no exposure to controlling behavior by their partner was a key element. At the community level, a supportive and less tolerant to IPV environment as well as exposure to IPV inquiry during pregnancy facilitated the process of ending abuse. Conclusion: The study found that IPV exposure is associated with the children’s linear growth and women’s reversible contraceptive use. In addition, it is clear that gender norms regarding IPV are not static and that they play an important role in facilitating the process ending the abuse by increasing abused women’s access to emotional and material support. Our results emphasize the relevance of improving public services response to IPV.

The world has made important efforts to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) by 2015. However, it is still insufficient and inequalities prevail in the poorest settings. We tracked selected MDG, barriers for their achievement, and community actions that help to accelerate the pace of their accomplishment in two Nicaraguan communities (León and Cuatro Santos). In the first two studies we track the progress of MDG4 (reduce child mortality) using the under-five mortality rate. Inequalities in mortality were mainly assessed by means of maternal education, but other social stratifications were performed on rural-urban residence and sub-regional comparisons between both communities. The last two studies describe community interventions in Cuatro Santos and their association with progress toward MDG1 (poverty reduction). Participation in interventions and poverty were visualized geographically in this remote rural community between 2004 and 2009. Other selected MDG targets were also tracked. These communities will possibly meet MDG4 even before 2015. In León, MDG progress has been accompanied by a decline in child mortality. Despite social inequalities with regard to mortality persisting in education and places of residence, these have decreased. However, it is crucial to reduce neonatal mortality if MDG4 is to be achieved. For example, in León the percentage of under-five deaths in the neonatal period has doubled from 1970 to 2005. In the remote rural area of Cuatro Santos, progress has been accelerated and no child mortality differences were observed despite the level of a mother’s education. Cuatro Santos has also progressed in the reduction of poverty and extreme poverty. The participation of the population in such community interventions as microcredit, home gardening, technical training, safe drinking water, and latrines has increased. Microcredit was an intervention that was unequally distributed in this rural area, where participation was lower in poor and extremely poor households than in non-poor households. In those households that transitioned from poor to non-poor status, microcredit, home gardening, and technical training were associated with this transition. Furthermore spatial analysis revealed that clusters of low participation in interventions overlapped with clusters of high poverty households.