Biological functions that use amino acids (AA) are limited by AA supply. This concept was likened to staves in a barrel, where the shortest stave determines the barrel's ability to hold water (Mitchell and Block, 1946). Inaccuracies in models that predict nutrient supply and requirements of dairy cows result in inefficient feeding, as under-prediction of requirements results in deficiency, and over-prediction results in excess. To avoid limitations in production due to AA deficiencies, protein is fed in quantities that likely exceed requirements. Overfeeding of AA results in increased expenses for producers and increased N excretion to the environment, providing economic and environmental incentives to increase N-efficiency. Work presented in the following chapters evaluated the impact of AA supplementation on milk production in dairy cattle, and evaluated the PREP10 and NRC (2001) nutrient requirement model predictions. In two feeding trials (Chapter 2 and Chapter 3), low protein diets did not result in decreased milk production, indicating that protein requirements were overestimated. Although supplementation of AA did not increase milk production, low protein diets resulted in greater N-efficiency, especially when supplemented with Histidine. Evaluation of the PREP10 and NRC (2001) models (Chapter 4) used production data from the literature to identify deficiencies in prediction equations, and found that correction of model bias would considerably reduce prediction errors. Model inaccuracies affect the inefficiency of dairy cow feeding, and must be evaluated to improve feed efficiency. Such improvements could act synergistically with AA supplementation to more closely match nutrient supply to requirements. / Master of Science

Dairy cows are extremely inefficient at converting dietary nitrogen (N) to productive N. Approximately 25-30% of dietary N is used for milk protein while the remaining N is lost to the environment. According to National Research Council (NRC, 2001) recommendations, dairy cow rations are formulated in terms of metabolizable protein (MP) which often causes many amino acids (AA) to be fed in excess. A better understanding of protein and AA requirements could help to improve the nitrogen efficiency of dairy cows. The objective of this work was to examine the effects of feeding a low protein diet supplemented with rumen protected (RP) AA on production and N efficiency of dairy cows. Twenty-four Holstein and 24 Holstein x Jersey crossbred cows were used in a Youden square design consisting of 3 periods. Cows were randomly assigned to one of 8 treatments: 1) a standard diet containing 17% crude protein (+Con), 2) a 15% crude protein diet (-Con), 3) â Con plus RP methionine (+M, 16g/d), 4) â Con plus RP lysine (+K, 47g/d), 5) â Con plus RP leucine (+L, 181g/d), 6) â Con plus RP methionine and lysine (+MK), 7) â Con plus RP methionine and leucine (+ML), and 8) â Con plus RP methionine, lysine, and leucine (+MKL). Cows fed the â Con as well as the +MKL diet experienced a reduction in milk production and milk protein yield (P < 0.05). Dry matter intake decreased only for those animals on the +ML diet (P < 0.05). Milk urea N (MUN) decreased for all diets when compared to the +Con treatment (P < 0.05). In accordance with the decrease in MUN, N efficiency was numerically increased in the diets supplemented with RP AA, but this improvement was not significant. Phosphorylation of signaling proteins important for protein synthesis were also examined. Animals fed the +MK treatment increased phosphorylated and total forms of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) when compared to the +Con and â Con (P < 0.05), but this increase in abundance did not affect the ratio of phosphorylated to total abundance. Feeding dairy cows a low protein diet supplemented with RP AA has the ability to alleviate the loss in milk production associated with feeding a low protein diet as well as to increase nitrogen efficiency. / Master of Science

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Internal N efficiency (IE) is defined as the amount of grain dry matter (GDM) produced per unit of N in the above ground plant at physiological maturity (PMN). Currently, a static value of IE (48 kg GDM kg^-1N) is used to define the optimal PMN in yield goal-based N recommendations used in 30 U.S. states and several N recommendation models. To evaluate the accuracy and variability of this value of IE at the economic optimum N rate (IE_E), experiments were conducted at 47 sites located in eight states over a three year period (2014-2016). To establish IE_E, N treatments ranged from 0 to 315 kg N ha^-1 in 45 kg N ha^-1 increments, applied either at-planting or split with 45 kg N ha^-1 at-planting and the remainder at the V9±1 V-stage. Average IE_E across all site-years was 53 kg GDM kg^-1 N with 79% of the observations between 46 and 60 kg GDM kg^-1 N, higher than the currently accepted value of IE. Half of the time the timing of N application affected IE_E, with greater IE_E with split N in 70% of these instances due to lower PMN arising from reduced stover dry matter. In most cases the timing of N did not affect IE_E. Across all site-years, GDM at the EONR or EONR were unrelated to IE_E. Plant N content at VT of the non-fertilized and 45 kg N ha^-1 at planting treatments were single variables most highly correlated with IE_E (<i>p</i> ≤ 0.10, r = -0.42 and -0.50, respectively). These variables reflected the amount of residual or available N retained in the plant and/or SDM at the optimal N rate. Other factors such as plant available water content at various depths and crop reflectance at the V9 leaf stage (sufficiency and simple ratio indices for both NDVI and NDRE at 0 and 45 kg N ha^-1) were negatively related to IE_E across all site-years, but only weakly. Predictive models for IE_E at planting and prior to sidedressing accounted for < 50% of the variation in IE_E. Internal N efficiency varied considerably, but was difficult to predict, thus contributing to the inaccuracy of the yield-goal based N recommendations.

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The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of slow release urea on N metabolism in cattle. The ruminal behavior of Optigen®II and the effect of basal diet on the in situ degradability of urea and Optigen®II were evaluated. The effect of slow release urea and its interaction with degradable intake protein (DIP) level in the diet on N retention and excretion was evaluated utilizing 8 Holstein steers in a 4 x 4 Latin square experiment. In addition, the effect of slow release urea and DIP level on ruminal and systemic urea kinetics was evaluated using stable isotope techniques with 8 Holstein steers in a 4 x 4 Latin square experiment. Finally, slow release urea was evaluated under a practical beef production setting. The performance of slow release urea was compared to regular feed grade urea in a 42 day receiving study (288 Angus cross steers) as well as a 70 day growing study (240 Angus cross steers). High forage diets increased the ruminal degradation rate of both urea and slow release urea an increased the extent of degradation of slow release urea when compared to high concentrate diets. Lower DIP concentrations in the diet reduced systemic urea production, ruminal ammonia and plasma urea concentrations and urinary urea excretion under most circumstances but also led to a reduction in N retention, reduced diet digestibility, lower feed intake, lower growth rate and decreased feed efficiency. High DIP intakes increased N retention, growth rate, diet digestibility and improved feed efficiency but also lead to increased excretion on urea N in the urine. Slow release urea improved N retention and efficiency of N retention in high DIP diets when compared to urea and generally reduced plasma urea and ruminal ammonia concentrations. Compared to urea, slow release urea did not significantly improve the production of receiving cattle. However Optigen®II improved the feed efficiency when compared to urea on high concentrate diets but reduced feed efficiency on high forage diets.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T16:44:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PGPV14MA131.pdf: 589515 bytes, checksum: 0f95e7d25dc0deb9fb8074afddac1c30 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-03-21 / The use of nitrogen fertilizers with slow and controlled N release may be a strategy to increase the nitrogen efficiency use and to reduce the amount of nitrogen applied to maize crop, without harming grain yield. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of fertilizers with slow and controlled release of N as a strategy to increase the efficiency of nitrogen fertilization in maize hybrid AS 1565.The experiment was set on 12/12/2011, in Campo Belo do Sul, Santa Catarina State. The following treatments were tested: two controls, one without N application and another with the application of urea (the control), with the recommended N fertilizer rate (220 kg ha-1), where 40 kg ha-1 were applied at sowing and 180 kg ha where side-dressed when the crop had four and eight expanded leaves; two slow and controlled N fertilizer sources (Polyblen e Polyblen Plus), applied entirely at sowing, with the rates of 220 kg ha-1, 176 kg ha-1 and 132 kg ha-1 of N, corresponding to 100%, 80% e 60% of the recommended fertilizer rate, respectively. The phosphate and potassium fertilization were the same for all treatments. The rates of 120 kg of P2O5 ha-1 and 40 kg ha-1 of K2O were applied at sowing. The hybrid used was AS1565, sowed with 70.000 pl ha-1 density and 50 cm row spacing. The 176 kg N ha-1 application of Polyblen Plus provided a grain yield of 11.184 kg ha-1. This value is numerically higher and statisticaly similar to the one obtained with the standard urea control (10.557 kg ha-1), where 220 kg of N ha-1 were applied. This result indicates that the use of a slow and controlled N source was an effective strategy to increase N effciency use, to reduce the nitrogen rate applied to the maize crop and to apply the entire nitrogen rate at sowing. Nonetheless, the high cost of these fertilizers reduced the crop net profit, compared to the standard urea fertilization, constituting a major bottleneck to the spread of its use in commercial maize crops / A utilização de fertilizantes nitrogenados de liberação lenta e controlada pode ser uma estratégia para aumentar a eficiência de uso do N e reduzir a quantidade de nitrogênio aplicado à cultura do milho, sem comprometer sua produtividade. Este trabalho foi conduzido objetivando avaliar o efeito de fertilizantes de liberação lenta e controlada de N como estratégia para aumentar a eficiência da adubação nitrogenada na cultura do milho. O experimento foi implantado em 12/12/2011, no município de Campo Belo do Sul, SC. Foram testados os seguintes tratamentos: duas testemunhas, uma sem aplicação de N e outra com aplicação de ureia (controle), com a adubação recomendada para a cultura do milho, onde foram aplicados 40 kg de N ha-1 na semeadura e 180 kg de N ha-1 em cobertura, fracionados em dois estádios fenológicos (quatro e oito folhas expandidas); duas fontes de N de liberação lenta e controlada (Polyblen e Polyblen Plus), aplicadas integralmente na semeadura, nas doses de 220 kg ha-1, 176 kg ha-1 e 132 kg ha-1, correspondendo a 100%, 80% e 60% da adubação recomendada, respectivamente. A adubação fosfatada e potássica foi a mesma para todos os tratamentos, sendo aplicados na semeadura 120 kg de P2O5 ha-1 e 40 kg ha-1 de K2O. O híbrido utilizado foi o AS1565, semeado com densidade de 70.000 pl ha-1 e espaçamento de 50 cm entre linhas. A aplicação de 176 kg N ha-1 de Polyblen Plus propiciou a obtenção de rendimento de grãos de 11.184 kg ha-1. Este valor é numericamente superior e estatisticamente similar à produtividade obtida no controle (10.557 kg ha-1), na qual foram aplicados 220 kg de N ha-1. Isto indica que a utilização de fontes de liberação lenta e controlada é uma estratégia efetiva para aumentar a eficiência de uso do N e reduzir a dose de nitrogênio aplicada na cultura do milho, além de permitir toda a aplicação do N durante a semeadura. Contudo, o alto custo destes fertilizantes reduz o lucro líquido obtido, na comparação com a ureia convencional, constituindo-se num empecilho para sua utilização na cultura do milho

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