O osso é um sólido heterogêneo com estrutura bastante complexa que geralmente exige o emprego de múltiplas escalas em sua análise. A análise do comportamento eletromecânico da estrutura óssea tem sido realizada por meio de métodos da mecânica clássica, métodos de elementos finitos e métodos de homogeneização. Procura-se descrever matematicamente a relação entre o comportamento eletromecânico da estrutura óssea e as propriedades efetivas, ou, globais. Assim, muitos esforços têm sido despendidos para desenvolver modelos analíticos rigorosos capazes de predizer as propriedades globais e locais das estruturas ósseas. O propósito deste trabalho é estudar o método de Homogeneização Assimptótica (MHA) com a finalidade de determinar as propriedades eletromecânicas efetivas de estruturas heterogêneas, tais como a estrutura óssea. Inicialmente, são analisados o problema de condução de calor e o problema elástico e demonstra-se que estes problemas estão relacionados entre si. Para o problema de condução de calor, dois métodos para obter as constantes efetivas são apresentados. Além disso, uma aplicação do MHA em osso cortical é apresentada e os resultados estão de muito bom acordo com resultados encontrados na literatura. Em vista disto, verifica-se a possibilidade da aplicação do MHA para determinar as propriedades efetivas da estrutura óssea com estrutura cristalina na classe 622. / The bone is a heterogeneous solid with a highly complex structure that requires a multiple scale type of analysis. To analyze the electromechanical behavior of the bone structure, methods of classical mechanics, finite element methods, and methods of homogenization are being used. This analysis describes mathematically the relationship between the electromechanical behavior of the bone structure and its effective, or, global, properties. Thus, many efforts have been spent to develop rigorous analytical models capable of predicting the global and local effective properties of bone structures. The purpose of this work is to study the Asymptotic Homogenization Method (AHM) in order to determine the electromechanical effective properties of heterogeneous structures, such as the bone structure. The analysis of heat conduction and elastic problem using AHM shows that these problems are related to each other. Furthermore, an application of the AHM in cortical bone is presented and the results are shown to be in very good agreement with results found in the literature. Finally, this work shows great promise in the application of the AHM to determine the effective properties of a bone structure whose constituent material belongs to the crystal class 622.

Ossos são sólidos não homogêneos com estruturas altamente complexas que requerem uma modelagem multiescala para entender seu comportamento eletromecânico e seus mecanismos de remodelamento. O objetivo deste trabalho é encontrar expressões analíticas para as propriedades elástica, piezoelétrica e dielétrica efetivas de osso cortical modelando-o em duas escalas: microscópica e macroscópica. Utiliza-se o Método de Homogeneização Assintótica (MHA) para calcular as constantes eletromecânicas efetivas deste material. O MHA produz um procedimento em duas escalas que permite obter as propriedades efetivas de um material compósito contendo uma distribuição periódica de furos cilíndricos circulares unidirecionais em uma matriz piezoelétrica linear e transversalmente isotrópica. O material da matriz pertence à classe de simetria cristalina 622. Os furos estão centrados em células de uma matriz periódica de secções transversais quadradas e a periodicidade é a mesma em duas direções perpendiculares. O compósito piezoelétrico está sob cisalhamento antiplano acoplado a um campo elétrico plano. Os problemas locais que surgem da análise em duas escalas usando o MHA são resolvidos por meio de um método da teoria de variáveis complexas, o qual permite expandir as soluções correspondentes em séries de potências de funções elípticas de Weierstrass. Os coeficientes das séries são determinados das soluções de sistemas lineares infinitos de equações algébricas. Truncando estes sistemas infinitos até uma ordem finita de aproximação, obtêm-se fórmulas analíticas para as constantes efetivas elástica, piezoelétrica e dielétrica, que dependem da fração de volume dos furos e de um fator de acoplamento eletromecânico da matriz. Os resultados numéricos obtidos a partir destas fórmulas são comparados com resultados obtidos pelas fórmulas calculadas via método de Mori-Tanaka e apresentam boa concordância. A boa concordância entre todas as curvas obtidas via MHA sugere que a expressão correspondente da primeira aproximação fornece uma fórmula muito simples para calcular o fator de acoplamento efetivo do compósito. Os resultados são úteis na mecânica de osso. / Bones are inhomogeneous solids with highly complex structures that require multiscale modeling to understand its electromechanical behavior and its remodeling mechanisms. The objective of this work is to find analytical expressions for the effective elastic, piezoelectric, and dielectric properties of cortical bone by modeling it on two scales: microscopic and macroscopic. We use Asymptotic Homogenization Method (AHM) to calculate the effective electromechanical constants of this material. The AHM yields a two-scale procedure to obtain the effective properties of a composite material containing a periodic distribution of unidirectional circular cylindrical holes in a linear transversely isotropic piezoelectric matrix. The matrix material belongs to the symmetry crystal class 622. The holes are centered in a periodic array of cells of square cross sections and the periodicity is the same in two perpendicular directions. The piezoelectric composite is under antiplane shear deformation together with in-plane electric field. Local problems that arise from the two-scale analysis using the AHM are solved by means of a complex variable method, which allows us to expand the corresponding solutions in power series of Weierstrass elliptic functions. The coefficients of these series are determined from the solutions of infinite systems of linear algebraic equations. Truncating the infinite systems up to a finite, but otherwise arbitrary, order of approximation, we obtain analytical formulas for effective elastic, piezoelectric, and dielectric properties, which depend on both the volume fraction of the holes and an electromechanical coupling factor of the matrix. Numerical results obtained from these formulas are compared with results obtained by the Mori-Tanaka approach and show good agreement. The good agreement between all curves obtained via AHM suggests that the corresponding expression of first approximation provides a very simple formula to calculate the effective coupling factor of the composite. The results are useful in bone mechanics.

Ce travail est consacré à la description macroscopique de deux types de plaques structurées contrastées dont le comportement dynamique est atypique : le premier cas correspond à une plaque raidie dans une direction par des raidisseurs régulièrement espacés, le second correspond au cas d’une plaque bi-raidie dans les deux directions par un treillis périodique de poutres. Les différents régimes de comportement sont spécifiés en fonction des paramètres mécaniques et géométriques des raidisseurs et de la plaque. Le comportement dynamique de ces plaques est établi en faisant émerger, par homogénéisation asymptotique, la description locale et globale. Le modèle est construit à partir des équations élasto-dynamiques tri-dimensionnelles du matériau combinées à des développements asymptotiques. Le travail se concentre sur des situations de résonance interne qui correspondent à des contrastes spécifiques entre les paramètres de la plaque et du raidisseur. L’analyse met clairement en évidence les cinématiques enrichies de la plaque et aboutit à un modèle analytique macroscopique qui inclut les mécanismes de torsion et de flexion. Dans le cas de la plaque mono-raidie, un modèle hybride fait intervenir des paramètres effectifs dont les expressions analytiques sont précisées. Ce modèle est analogue à un modèle de poutre et permet d’appréhender le comportement de la plaque en incluant la résonance interne. Ce modèle non conventionnel montre la coexistence de deux régimes dynamiques. Les caractéristiques de dispersion atypique associées aux ondes de flexion et de torsion proviennent de paramètres effectifs dépendants de la fréquence, comme la masse effective, l’inertie de rotation effective, et la rigidité de torsion effective associées à la plaque. Cette théorie est ensuite étendue au cas de la plaque bi-raidie, et conduit à un opérateur de type plaque non conventionnel incluant des paramètres effectifs. Ces résultats permettent d’examiner des courbes de dispersion atypiques en fonction des contrastes géométriques et mécaniques entre les différents composants. La validité des modèles et leur robustesse sont vérifiées en comparant les résultats analytiques à des simulations numériques de type éléments finis WFEM. Les comparaisons montrent que les mécanismes observables numériquement sont bien décrits par le modèle analytique proposé. Enfin, deux maquettes sont utilisées pour la validation expérimentale : une correspondant à une plaque mono-raidie comportant un contraste géométrique, et l’autre correspondant à la plaque bi-raidie impliquant des contrastes géométrique et mécanique. Les réponses mesurées par vibromètre laser sont traitées par corrélation d’onde IWC. Les mesures sont reproduites pour plusieurs conditions limites de plaques internes et différentes valeurs de masse ajoutées pour montrer la performance du modèle homogénéisé. Une très bonne corrélation apparaît entre les mesures expérimentales et les prédictions issues du modèle. Cette approche peut être utilisée pour décrire le comportement de panneaux raidis industriels et pour concevoir des structures ayant des propriétés spécifiques à certaines fréquences. / This work is devoted to the modeling of two types of contrasted structured plates that exhibit non-conventional dynamic behavior : the first one corresponds to periodic unidirectionally stiffened plates and the second one corresponds to orthogonally stiffened plates. The different regimes of behavior are specified, according to the mechanical and geometrical parameters of the beam and the plate. The dynamic behavior of such stiffened plates is established by up-scaling, through multi-scale asymptotic method, the linear local description of the plate and the stiffening beams coupled together. The behavior is derived from the three-dimensional elastodynamic laws of the materials combined with asymptotic expansions formulation. The study focuses on situations of inner resonance that corresponds to specific mechanical contrasts between the beam and plate parameters. The analysis clearly evidences the enriched kinematics of such plate and yields to a synthetic and analytic macroscopic representation that encompasses the flexural and torsional mechanisms, as well as guided waves. In the case of unidirectionally ribbed plates, an effective hybrid beam/plate model is obtained and the analytical expressions of effective parameters are specified. It results in a beam-like operator that provides a simple understanding of the behavior taking into account inner resonance. This atypical model accounts from the coexistence of two types of dynamic regimes. The unusual dispersion features of flexural and torsional waves arise from frequency dependent parameters, namely, the effective mass, the effective rotational inertia and the effective torsional spring rigidity associated with the plate. The theory is then extended to an orthogonally ribbed plate, and yields a non-conventional plate model with frequency dependent parameters. These results allow investigating the atypical dispersion equation with respect to the geometrical and mechanical contrasts of the structural components. The validity and robustness of the model are also verified by comparing theoretical predictions with finite element based computations, namely the WFEM (Wave Finite Element Method). Comparisons show that mechanisms identified numerically are correctly predicted by the proposed homogenized model. Finally, two mock-ups are considered experimentally, corresponding to uni-directionally ribbed plate with geometrical contrast and orthogonally ribbed plates involving geometrical and mechanical contrasts. The out-of-plane displacement field under random excitation is measured using a scanning laser vibrometer, then post-processed using the IWC (Inhomogeneous Wave Correlation) method. This is performed for various internal boundary conditions and added mass to highlight the ability of the homogenized model to describe different configurations. A good agreement is found between the experimental measurements and the analytical predictions. The presented approach can be used to describe the motion of ribbed panels of industrial interest and/or to design structures having specific atypical features in a given frequency range.

Avaliação da \"qualidade\" da microarquitetura óssea contribui na prevenção e risco de fraturas associado a osteoporose. Amostras de ossos trabeculares de corpos vertebrais da região T12, L1 e L4 de 30 de indivíduos (cadáveres humanos), classificados pela técnica de ultrassonometria de calcâneo como normais, osteopênicos e osteoporóticos foram utilizadas. Os parâmetros histomorfométricos, físicos e mecânicos da microarquitetura analisados pela técnica de microtomografia de raios-X, ensaios mecânicos de compressão axial e nanoindentação. Baseado nestes parâmetros, constantes elásticas efetivas globais foram obtidas pela técnica homogeneização assintótica para estrutura tipo-placa. Teste ANOVA apresentou diferenças, muito e extremamente significativas para densidade linear estrutural (p = 0,017), grau de anisotropia (p = 0,042), auto valor (p = 0,045), número de Euler (p = 0,016), idade (p = 0,009), separação trabecular (p = 0,009), densidade de conectividade (p = 0,006), módulo de elasticidade (p = 0,001), tensão máxima no limite de resistência a fratura (0,001), índice de qualidade óssea do calcâneo (p = 0,0001), fração de volume ósseo (p = 0,0001), espessura trabecular (p = 0,0002), dimensão fractal (p = 0,0002), momento de inércia polar médio (p = 0,00005), excentricidade (p = 0,0002), fração de porosidade (p = 0,0001) e densidade mineral óssea aparente (p = 0,00005) entre os grupos. O teste de Spearman identificou correlação moderada, alta e muito alta dos valores da tensão máxima no limite de resistência a fratura com os parâmetros de idade (r = -0,684), fração de volume ósseo (r = 0,762), fator de forma trabecular (r = -0,754), espessura trabecular (r = 0,675), densidade linear trabecular (r = 0,622), autos valores (r = -0,615), dimensão fractal (r = 0,855), momento de inércia polar médio (r = 0,816), excentricidade (r = -0,569) e fração de porosidade (r = -0,762). Estes parâmetros são indicadores da qualidade da microarquitetura óssea trabecular e risco de fratura associado a osteoporose. / Evaluation of the \"quality\" of bone microarchitecture can contribute to the prevention and risk of fractures associated with osteoporosis. Samples of trabecular bone from the vertebral regions T12, L1 and L4 from the bodies of 30 individuals (human cadavers), classified by ultrasonometry technique calcaneus as normal, osteopenic and osteoporotic were used. The histomorphometric, physical and mechanical parameters of the microarchitecture were analyzed by X-ray microtomography technique, mechanical tests of axial compression and nanoindentation. Based on these parameters, globally effective elastic constants were obtained by asymptotic homogenization technique for type-plate structure. ANOVA test showed differences that were very and extremely significant for the following: structural linear density (p = 0.017) anisotropy (p = 0.042), auto value (p = 0.045), Euler number (p = 0.016), age (p = 0.009), trabecular separation (p = 0.009), connectivity density (p = 0.006), elastic modulus (p = 0.001), maximum stress fracture strength limit (0.001), bone quality score of the calcaneus (p = 0.0001), bone volume fraction (p = 0.0001), trabecular thickness (p = 0.0002), fractal dimension (p = 0.0002), mean polar moment of inertia (p = 0.00005), eccentricity (p = 0.0002), porosity fraction (p = 0.0001) and apparent bone mineral density (p = 0.00005) between groups. The Spearman test identified moderate correlation, high and very high values of maximum stress fracture resistance limit for the following parameters: age (r = -0.684), bone volume fraction (r = 0.762), trabecular bone pattern factor (r = -0.754), trabecular thickness (r = 0.675), trabecular linear density (r = 0.622), auto value (r = -0.615), fractal dimension (r = 0.855), mean polar moment of inertia (r = 0.816), eccentricity (r = -0.569) and porosity fraction (r = -0.762). These parameters are quality indicators of the microarchitecture of trabecular bone and fracture risk associated with osteoporosis.

No description available.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur la modélisation mathématique et la simulation numérique de la migration par gravité et capillarité du CO₂ supercritique injecté dans un site de séquestration géologique hétérogène. Les simulations sont réalisées à l'aide du code DuMux. Particulièrement, on s'intéresse à la mise à l'échelle, de l'échelle de la cellule à l'échelle du réservoir, d'un modèle d'écoulement diphasique CO₂ -saumure, au sein d'un milieu stratifié périodique constitué d'un réseau de barrières peu perméables horizontales, continues ou discontinues. La mise à l'échelle est effectuée par la méthode asymptotique à double échelle. Dans un premier temps, on considère le cas d'une colonne verticale parfaitement stratifiée. Un modèle homogénéisé est développé puis validé par simulation numérique pour différentes valeurs du nombre capillaire et du flux incident de CO₂ . La méthode d'homogénéisation est appliquée au cas d'un écoulement dans un milieu bidimensionnel constitué de strates discontinues. Par l'effet de gravité, le CO₂ s'accumule sous les strates peu perméables, ce qui conduit à un problème mathématique local non standard. Cette stratification est modélisée à l'aide de l'approche des courants de gravité. L'approche est étendue au cas des strates semi-perméables et en prenant en compte la capillarité. Le modèle mis à l'échelle est comparé à des simulations numériques effectuées pour différents types de strates, avec ou sans pression capillaire, et sa limite de validité est discutée pour chacun de ces cas. La dernière partie de la thèse est dédiée à l'étude des performances du code DuMux pour simuler par calcul parallèle l'injection et la migration de CO₂ dans des milieux hétérogènes tridimensionnels (milieu périodique stratifié, milieu fluviatile et milieu réservoir SPE10). / This work deals with the mathematical modeling and the numerical simulation of the migration under gravity and capillarity effects of the supercritical CO₂ injected into a geological heterogeneous sequestration site. The simulations are performed with the code DuMux. Particularly, we consider the upscaling, from the cell scale to the reservoir scale, of a two-phase (CO₂ -brine) flow model within a periodic stratified medium made up of horizontal low permeability barriers, continuous or discontinuous. The upscaling is done by the two-scale asymptotic method. First, we consider perfectly layered media. An homogenized model is developed and validated by numerical simulation for different values of capillary number and the incident flux of CO₂ . The homogenization method is then applied to the case of a two-dimensional medium made up of discontinuous layers. Due to the gravity effect, the CO₂ accumulates under the low permeability layers, which leads to a non-standard local mathematical problem. This stratification is modeled using the gravity current approach. This approach is then extended to the case of semi-permeable stratas taking into account the capillarity. The upscaled model is compared with numerical simulations for different types of layers, with or without capillary pressure, and its limit of validity is discussed in each of these cases. The final part of this thesis is devoted to the study of the parallel computing performances of the code DuMux to simulate the injection and migration of CO₂ in three-dimensional heterogeneous media (layered periodic media, fluvial media and reservoir model SPE 10).