Picophytoplankton were inferior competitors for inorganic phosphorus compared to heterotrophic bacteria. This may be due to the source of energy available for the heterotrophs, while cell-size was of minor importance. However, picophytoplankton were superior to large phytoplankton in the competition for nutrients at low concentrations. Biomass of picophytoplankton was low in brownwater lakes and high in clearwater lakes, compared to the biomass of heterotrophic bacteria. The results suggest that picophytoplankton are inferior to heterotrophic bacteria in the competition for inorganic nutrients in brownwater lakes, where the production of heterotrophic bacteria is subsidized by humic dissolved organic carbon (DOC) Relative to large phytoplankton, picophytoplankton were most important in lakes with intermediate water colour, despite the fact that the lowest nutrient concentrations were found in the clearwater lakes. Large phytoplankton in the clearwater lakes may be able to overcome nutrient competition with picophytoplankton by vertical migration. In conclusion, changes in nutrient content, light availability and concentrations of DOC affect the interactions of heterotrophic bacteria, picophytoplankton and large phytoplankton and are therefore important factors for the structure of the food web in the pelagic zones of lakes. Picophytoplankton (planktonic algae and cyanobacteria, < 2 µm) constitute an important component of pelagic food webs. They are linked to larger phytoplankton and heterotrophic bacteria through complex interactions including competition, commensalism and predation. In this thesis, field and laboratory studies on the competitive ability of picophytoplankton are reported.

This thesis focuses on the interactions among microbiota in clearwater lakes. Field sampling and field experiments were performed to evaluate interactions among microbiota and the importance of benthic versus pelagic microbiota in terms of biomass and production. In addition, carbon cycling in an oligotrophic clearwater lake was calculated. Biomass and production of microbiota was clearly focused to the benthic habitat. During natural nutrient concentrations growth of heterotrophic bacteria (benthic and pelagic) was coupled to production of microphytobenthos in Lake Eckarfjärden, indicating interactions between autotrophic and heterotrophic microbiota in, as well as between, habitats. At increased nutrient concentrations, growth of heterotrophic bacteria was not correlated to microphytobenthos production. This was explained by less release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from microphytobenthos when they got access to more nutrients. Further investigations showed different scenarios in oligotrophic clearwater lakes following increased nutrient concentrations. The interactions between microbiota may be altered following increased nutrient concentrations and the microbial mat either positively or negatively affect the pelagic microbiota. The most striking result was that the expected shift towards dominance of pelagic primary production does not necessarily occur. Major flows of carbon were identified between different habitats in the oligotrophic clearwater Lake Eckarfjärden, and the net result was that the benthic habitat provided carbon to the pelagial. High DOC concentrations in the lake together with low pelagic production are factors that would indicate net heterotrophy. Accordingly, the pelagial of Lake Eckarfjärden was net heterotrophic but when the benthic and littoral habitats were included in the calculations, the lake turned out to be net autotrophic. In conclusion, the benthic microbiota contributed significantly to the total production in the investigated lakes and had a major role in the lake metabolism. Thus, this thesis emphasises the importance of benthic microbiota in shallow clearwater lakes.

<p><p>I investigated the usefulness of phytoplankton for the removal of surface water contaminants. Three experiments, consisting of nine large mesocosms (92.2 m³) were suspended in the flooded DJX uranium pit at Cluff Lake (Saskatchewan, Canada), and filled with contaminated mine water. During the summer of 2003, each mesocosm was fertilized with a different amount of phosphorus throughout the 35 day experiment to stimulate phytoplankton growth, and to create a range in phosphorus load (g) to examine how contaminants may be affected by different nutrient regimes. Algal growth was rapid in fertilized mesocosms as demonstrated by chlorophyll a profiles. As phosphorus loads increased there were significant declines in the surface water concentrations of As, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn. This decline was near significant for uranium. The surface water concentrations of Ra²²⁶, Mo, and Se showed no relationship to phosphorus load. Contaminant concentrations in sediment traps suspended at the bottom of each mesocosm generally showed the opposite trend to that observed in the surface water, with most contaminants (As, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Ra²²⁶, U, and Zn) exhibiting a significant positive relationship (<i>P</i> < 0.05) with phosphorus load. Sediment trap concentration of Se and Mo did not respond to nutrient treatments.</p> <p>Similar experiments were repeated during the mid- and late-summer of 2004, with 5 mesocosms being fertilized with phosphorus, and another 4 with both phosphorus and ammonium to create different nutrient gradients. Results from these experiments were much more variable than those seen in the experiment conducted in 2003, and small samples (<i>n</i> = 5 for phosphorus treatments and <i>n</i> = 4 for both phosphorus and ammonium treatments) yielded insufficient statistical power to effectively determine statistically significant trends. However, contaminant sedimentation tended to respond to phosphorus treatments in a similar manner as results from 2003; phosphorus-with-ammonium treatments had little positive effect on contaminant sedimentation rates.</p> <p>My results suggest that phytoremediation has the potential to lower many surface water contaminants through the sedimentation of phytoplankton. Based on our results from 2003, we estimate that the Saskatchewan Surface Water Quality Objectives (SSWQO) for the DJX pit would be met in approximately 45 weeks for Co, 65 weeks for Ni, 15 weeks for U, and 5 weeks for Zn if treated using phytoremediation.</p><p>Note:</p><p>Appendix A content (pages 92-95) contains copyrighted material which has been removed. It can be viewed in the original thesis upon request.</p>

<p><p>I investigated the usefulness of phytoplankton for the removal of surface water contaminants. Three experiments, consisting of nine large mesocosms (92.2 m³) were suspended in the flooded DJX uranium pit at Cluff Lake (Saskatchewan, Canada), and filled with contaminated mine water. During the summer of 2003, each mesocosm was fertilized with a different amount of phosphorus throughout the 35 day experiment to stimulate phytoplankton growth, and to create a range in phosphorus load (g) to examine how contaminants may be affected by different nutrient regimes. Algal growth was rapid in fertilized mesocosms as demonstrated by chlorophyll a profiles. As phosphorus loads increased there were significant declines in the surface water concentrations of As, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn. This decline was near significant for uranium. The surface water concentrations of Ra²²⁶, Mo, and Se showed no relationship to phosphorus load. Contaminant concentrations in sediment traps suspended at the bottom of each mesocosm generally showed the opposite trend to that observed in the surface water, with most contaminants (As, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Ra²²⁶, U, and Zn) exhibiting a significant positive relationship (<i>P</i> < 0.05) with phosphorus load. Sediment trap concentration of Se and Mo did not respond to nutrient treatments.</p> <p>Similar experiments were repeated during the mid- and late-summer of 2004, with 5 mesocosms being fertilized with phosphorus, and another 4 with both phosphorus and ammonium to create different nutrient gradients. Results from these experiments were much more variable than those seen in the experiment conducted in 2003, and small samples (<i>n</i> = 5 for phosphorus treatments and <i>n</i> = 4 for both phosphorus and ammonium treatments) yielded insufficient statistical power to effectively determine statistically significant trends. However, contaminant sedimentation tended to respond to phosphorus treatments in a similar manner as results from 2003; phosphorus-with-ammonium treatments had little positive effect on contaminant sedimentation rates.</p> <p>My results suggest that phytoremediation has the potential to lower many surface water contaminants through the sedimentation of phytoplankton. Based on our results from 2003, we estimate that the Saskatchewan Surface Water Quality Objectives (SSWQO) for the DJX pit would be met in approximately 45 weeks for Co, 65 weeks for Ni, 15 weeks for U, and 5 weeks for Zn if treated using phytoremediation.</p><p>Note:</p><p>Appendix A content (pages 92-95) contains copyrighted material which has been removed. It can be viewed in the original thesis upon request.</p>

Phosphorus (P) is one of the essential nutrients for living organisms; however, excess P in aquatic systems often causes environmental and ecological problems including eutrophication. Removal of P from domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, and agricultural organic-waste systems is required to minimize loading of P to receiving water bodies. A variety of sorbents or filter materials have previously been evaluated for P removal, including natural materials, industrial byproducts, and synthetic products. Among these materials industrial byproducts were reported as most effective. However, only a few of these studies were based on field experiments. Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) and acesulfame-K (an artificial sweetener) are emerging contaminants observed in wastewater. The removal of PhACs in conventional wastewater treatment systems has been studied; however, few studies on alternative treatment systems are available. Studies related to the removal of acesulfame-K are even more limited. This thesis was focused on evaluation of basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS), a byproduct from the steel manufacturing industry, as a potential reactive media for P removal from surface water and wastewater. The removal of PhACs and acesulfame-K in wastewater treatment systems containing BOFS as a treatment component was also evaluated. The effectiveness of BOFS for removing P from lake water was evaluated in a three year pilot-scale hypolimnetic withdrawal P treatment system at Lake Wilcox, Richmond Hill, Ontario. Phosphate concentrations of the hypolimnion water ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 mg L-1. About 83-100% P was removed during the experiment. The reactive mixtures were changed each year to improve the performance of the treatment system. Elevated pH (9-12) at the effluent of the treatment system was adjusted by sparging CO2(g) to near neutral pH. Elevated Al was removed through this pH adjustment. Elevated concentrations of V were removed in a column containing 5 wt% zero valent iron (ZVI) mixed with sand (0.5 m3) at the end of the BOFS based column. Removal of P in the BOFS based media is attributed to adsorption and co-precipitation at the outer layer of BOFS. Geochemical modeling results showed supersaturation with respect to hydroxyapatite, ß-tricalciumphosphate, aragonite, and calcite. Solid phase analyzes of the BOFS based reactive media collected after completion of the year 2 experiment (spent media) through combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy (XANES) support the presence of calcium phosphate minerals on the outer layer of the spent media. A multistep wastewater treatment experiment was carried out in an indoor facility at the Center for Alternative Wastewater Treatment, Fleming College, Lindsay, Ontario, Canada. This experiment evaluated the removal of P, ammonia, cBOD5, COD, E. coli, total coliform, and trace metals in a series of treatment cells including a mixing cell, a vertical subsurface flow aerobic cell, a vertical subsurface flow P treatment cell containing BOFS, and a horizontal subsurface flow anaerobic cell. About 97-99% removal of P, NH3, cBOD5, E. coli, and total coliform; and ~72% removal of COD were achieved in the treatment system. The mixing cell and the aerated cell reduced the concentrations of P, ammonia, cBOD5, E. coli, and total coliform significantly and the P treatment cell provided additional treatment. However, the primary objective of the P treatment cell was to reduce P concentrations to the acceptable range according to the water quality guidelines. The P treatment cell had successfully fulfilled this objective. Elevated concentration of Al and V were also observed in the P treatment cell effluent. The concentration of Al decreased to below the guideline value of 0.075 mg L-1 after introducing a pH adjustment unit between the P treatment cell and the anaerobic cell. The concentration of V was decreased in the anaerobic cell effluent. However, the effluent concentration of V was much higher than the guideline value. Geochemical speciation modeling results showed supersaturation with respect to hydroxyapatite, ß-tricalciumphosphate, aragonite and calcite along the flow path. Accumulation of P on the outer layer of the spent BOFS media was identified by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Although X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) can provide information to a depth of 5-7 nm from the outer layer of the spent media, both Ca and P were positively identified in some of the samples. Accumulation of P at the edge of the grains of the spent media was clearly identified on the element map of polished cross-sections and corresponding FTIR spectra. The phosphate and carbonate functional groups were identified by the distribution of different vibrational frequencies through FTIR spectroscopy. The presence of calcite and hydroxyapatite were inferred based on the wave numbers assigned for these minerals in the literature. Finally, X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy (XANES) on the outer layer samples from the spent BOFS media and corresponding linear combination fitting analysis indicated the presence of ß-tricalciumphosphate, hydroxyapatite, and calcium phosphate dibasic. Based on the observations from the indoor wastewater treatment experiment, a multistep demonstration-scale outdoor wastewater treatment experiment was conducted to investigate the applicability of the integration of the P treatment technology and engineered wetland technology at a relatively large scale prior to a full-scale field installation. The anaerobic treatment cell was not included in this outdoor system because this unit did not efficiently remove ammonia and metals (e.g. V) from the Cell 4 effluent in the indoor system. A 10 cm layer of zero valent iron was placed at the bottom part of the down flowing P treatment cell to address the elevated V in the P treatment cell effluent observed in the indoor system and also to treat PhACs in the effluent. More than 99% removal of P, E. coli, and total coliform; >82, >98, and >76% removal of ammonia, cBOD5, and COD were achieved in this treatment system. The effluent pH (10.88±1.47) was neutralized and the concentration of V remained < 0.006 mg L-1. The Al concentration was adjusted to <0.075 mg L-1 with the neutralization of pH. Geochemical speciation modeling results showed the supersaturation of hydroxyapatite, ß-tricalciumphosphate, octatricalciumphosphate, aragonite, and calcite. The FTIR and XANES spectra showed the presence of calcium phosphate minerals on the outer layer of the spent media. Removal of the PhACs, including caffeine, ibuprofen, carbamazepine, naproxen, and sulfamethoxazole, and acesulfame-K was monitored in the demonstration-scale outdoor wastewater treatment system, which consisted of five different treatment cells including a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland, a vertical subsurface flow aerated cell, a vertical subsurface flow BOFS cell, and a pH neutralization unit. Significant removal of caffeine (>75%) and ibuprofen (50-75%), and moderate removal of sulfamethoxazole and naproxen (25-50%) were observed. The removal of carbamazepine was less effective with <25% removal observed. Acesulfame-K was also persistent along the flow path with <25% removal. This study demonstrated that removal of P from lake water and wastewater in excess of 95% could be achieved using BOFS as a reactive media. Integration of this media into an engineered wetland system enhances its performance in removing nutrients and other wastewater contaminants.

ABSTRACT Modeling of bark-, sand- and activated carbon filters for treatment of greywater Susanna Ciuk Karlsson   The part of the waste water produced in a household, originating from showers, dish - and wash water, is called greywater. It is possible to treat the greywater separately from the black water (toilet water) as it is less polluted and then use it for purposes such as garden irrigation. There are various methods for purifying greywater. Here, the possibility to purify greywater using three column filters with different materials (activated carbon, pine bark and sand) was examined through modeling in the computer program HYDRUS. A set-up with physical filters was available, where flow measurements were performed. These measurements were used to validate the model that was developed in HYDRUS. When a flow model had been produced that could replicate the measured flow, a module of HYDRUS was used to also model the reactive transport of nutrients and organic matter in the filters. The complete model was used for evaluation of the treatment performance of the filters during a default scenario where they were loaded with 1 liter of water per day containing pollutant concentration corresponding to typical greywater. / REFERAT Modellering av bark-, sand- och kolfilter för rening av BDT-vatten Susanna Ciuk Karlsson I ett hushåll används vatten som då blir till avloppsvatten. Detta avloppsvatten består till stor del av bad, disk och tvättvatten (BDT-vatten). Det är möjligt att behandla BDT-vattnet separat från klosettvattnet då det är mindre förorenat, låta det genomgå rening och sedan använda det för till exempel bevattning av trädgårdar. Det finns olika metoder för att rena BDT-vatten. Här studerades möjligheterna att rena BDT-vatten med hjälp av tre filter av olika material; aktivt kol, tallbark och sand, genom modellering i datorprogrammet HYDRUS. En praktisk experimentuppsättning med filterkolonner fanns att tillgå, där ett experiment med flödesmätningar genomfördes. Mätningarna användes för att validera modellen som utvecklades i HYDRUS. Efter att en flödesmodell som stämde överrens med uppmätta värden utvecklats, modellerades reaktiv transport av näringsämnen och organiskt material i filtren med en modul tillhörandes HYDRUS. Med hjälp av modelleringen kunde filtertypernas reningsförmåga utvärderas för ett iscensatt standardscenario där filtrena belastades med 1 l vatten/dag innehållandes föroreningar motsvarandes ett typiskt gråvatten.

Ten adult Quarter Horses (5 mares and 5 geldings) were placed in dry lot for 90 days and allowed free choice access to a diet consisting of average quality orchard grass hay, salt and water. The horses were then allowed free choice access to early-growth annual ryegrass pasture, salt and water for a 28 day period. Random hay and grass samples were analyzed for nutrient content. Blood samples were collected at 6 am, 8 am, 6 pm, and 8 pm on the final day of hay consumption and on the 4th, 9th and 28th days of grass consumption. Samples were subsequently analyzed to determine the effects of diet type on circulating blood glucose, insulin, and triglyceride concentrations. Body weights and body condition scores were monitored on the first and last day of blood collection. Ryegrass pasture consumption by horses in this trial resulted in body weight gains, increased body condition scores, and elevated insulin secretions. While blood glucose levels varied depending on day of sampling, there was no effect of diet type and blood glucose concentrations. Sex of test subject did not affect any of the parameters measured. Nutrient content analysis of the forages fed was attempted, however results were skewed therefore further correlations could not be determined.

The objectives of this study are to investigate the biodiversity in different unit of treatment systems, and to detect the function in a salt water type of constructed wetland. We investigated the benthic invertebrate community in different stage from 2010 July to 2011 May, while the parameters of TKN, NH3-N, organic nitrogen, TP, TOC and particle size were measured in the sediments of each sampling site at the same time in the wetland system. The results show that concentrations of organic matter and nutrients in the sediments were increased with time monthly. In May of 2010, the concentration of NH3-N were found the highest one(ANOVA, p<0.05). The particle size in sampling site 1 were the highest (ANOVA, p<0.05), while in November of 2010 all sampling sites were found exhibiting significantly different with other months (ANOVA, p<0.05). Further more, for the diversity of benthic invertebrate, we found that the parameter of the temperature was strongly negatively related to the species diversity, species abundance and species evenness, respectively (r=-387[H¡¦]¡F-533[d]¡F-438[J¡¦] ). The species diversity was increased with organic nitrogen concentrations in the sediments (r=0.492[TKN]¡F0.408[NH3-N]¡F0.493[org-N]), and were negatively related to the parameters of DO and particle size(r=-0.402[Particle size]¡F-0.287[DO] ). In addition, PCA shows that the parameters of particle size¡Borg-N¡BNH3-N¡BTKN and TOC were all important factors. Generally, it was concluded that the constructed systems, which is functioned of wetland was wastewater treatment mainly, exhibit no significant function in biodiversity.

Benthic microalgal community composition on an ephemerally submerged sandflat at East Beach, Galveston Island, Texas was studied to determine the spatial and temporal variability of total biomass and community composition and its responses to experimental manipulations of two environmental factors (salinity and nutrients). Four field studies were conducted between August 2004 and February 2005. The community consisted of two major algal groups, diatoms, and cyanobacteria with two less abundant groups, green algae, and phototrophic bacteria. Spatial variability showed that patch sizes of 12 - 25 m were detected over larger scales with smaller scale (cm) patches of approximately 28 - 201 cm^-2 contained within the larger patches. The second study examined the spatio-temporal variability of BMA over a 21-month period in a 1,000 m^2 area. Sampling location and date explained a significant amount of the variability in the abundances of algal groups, which were positively correlated with the water content of the sediments and negatively correlated with temperature (sediment and water). All of the algal groups showed a seasonal pattern with higher abundances measured in the winter months and lower abundances found during the summer. BMA biomass (100 mg Chl a m^-2 or greater) maxima occurred at temperatures less than 22 degrees C and sediment water content greater than 15% (g water g sediment^-1). BMA response to different salinities and nutrient (N+P) amended sediments was assessed in four bioassays conducted over a 6-month period (Aug. 2004, Oct. 2004, Dec. 2004, and Feb. 2005). In the salinity study, the treatments that were either 100% or partially diluted with deionized water had the lowest BMA biomass over all. Chlorophyll a and fucoxanthin were significantly affected by salinity with higher abundances found in salinities that averaged 15 with a preference for salinities greater than 22. Chlorophyll b was affected by salinity with higher abundances measured in the treatments with lowest salinity (DL and DI); and was affected by the time of year. This would suggest that this algal group prefers an environment with salinity less than 2 but can easily adapt to environments with higher salinities. BMA abundances were not significantly affected by the nutrient amended sediment, but were significantly affected by stations with higher water content, and during the cooler months (Dec. 2004 and Feb. 2005).

Carters Creek in Brazos County, Texas, like many surface water reaches in the Texas Gulf Coast region, has been identified for bacteria and nutrient impairment on the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) 303(d) List. Carters Creek drains a rapidly urbanizing watershed and has been found to carry high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), nitrate, phosphate and sodium. These constituents have a severe impact on the creek?s capacity for healthy aquatic life and increase the potential for eutrophication downstream. The creek has also had chronic high Escherichia coli counts, making the creek unsuitable for contact recreation according to the accepted standard for surface water quality, which is a geometric mean of 126 CFU per 100 ml. In this study, grab samples were taken twice monthly from fifteen sites on Carters Creek and its subcatchments from July 2007 to June 2008. The samples were analyzed for E. coli, DOC, total N, NO3-N, NH4-N, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, F-, Cl-, Br-, NO2-, SO42- and PO4-3. Mean annual DOC concentrations varied from 24.8 mg/L in Carter at Boonville Road to 55.5 mg/L in Wolfpen Creek; sodium varied from 33 mg/L in Carter at Old Reliance Road to 200 mg/L, also in Wolfpen Creek. Burton 4, the subcatchment with the highest geometric mean for E. coli with 2547 CFU/100 mL, was also sampled with greater geographical intensity for E. coli and optical brightener fluorescence at 445 nm to identify any leaking sewer pipes, but no evidence of defective pipes was found. During both the spring season and annual high flow (storm events), E. coli counts were positively correlated with total urban land use, probably caused by storm runoff carrying residues from impervious surfaces into the stream. High flow E. coli also had a negative relationship with potassium and a positive relationship with calcium, possibly suggesting a bioflocculation effect. Sites downstream of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) showed higher nitrate, phosphate, sodium, potassium, chloride and fluoride than other urban subcatchments. Creeks with golf courses carried more phosphate, sodium and fluoride than subcatchments without golf courses or WWTPs.