Cílem předkládané disertační práce je popsat problémy financování současného systému důchodového zabezpečení a na základě analýzy možných řešení, v rámci navrhovaných důchodových reforem, propočítat dopad jejich realizace na zvolený typ pojištěnce - představitele tranzitivní generace obyvatelstva.

An increasing number of parents are opting-out their children from high-stakes. Accountability systems in education have used students' test scores to measure student learning, teacher effectiveness, and school district performance. Students who are opted-out of high-stakes tests are not being evaluated by the state tests, making their level of achievement or proficiency unknown by the state government. The purpose of this basic interpretive qualitative study was to gain an understanding of the various reasons, factors, experiences, and personal events that led parents to opt-out their children from at least one 3rd through 8th grade high-stakes test. Data were collected using a researcher-designed semi-structured interview protocol developed using ecological approaches to systems theories and critical pedagogy theories. The study was set in New York and 10 participants were interviewed, all from different rural or small suburban school districts throughout the state. Five themes and 12 subthemes emerged from first and second cycle coding. Key findings indicated that parents decided to opt-out their children from high-stakes tests because they felt high-stakes were inappropriate and unfair. Further, parents were dissatisfied with current high-stakes testing practices. Previous 3rd through 8th grade testing procedures that allowed teachers to make and grade the state tests were seen as acceptable. Parents indicated no issue with testing. However, from a social change perspective they felt the current system of high stakes testing was used improperly to rate students, teachers, programs, and school districts, and that testing should be used to drive instruction and help struggling students. This study is beneficial for school personnel and policy makers because it provides different ways to assess student achievement.

Magister Public Health - MPH / Since the advent of the HIV pandemic, efforts have been made to find and implement interventions to reduce the risk of transmission of the infection in various risk groups. Mother to child transmission is responsible for a great majority of childhood HIV infections. Interventions have been developed which reduce considerably the risk of mother to child transmission to babies born to women who are infected. To be able to access these interventions, pregnant women first have to know their status by being tested at antenatal clinics. Initial testing protocols in most countries were based on the opt-in, client-initiated approach. However, in many countries, this did not result in many women getting tested and being able to access interventions. Accordingly, many countries have now adopted the routine opt-out approach as a way of increasing testing rates among women attending antenatal clinics. Ghana has had a PMTCT programme since 2004 initially based on opt-in testing. In 2007, there was a change in this testing regimen to the opt-out approach. The aim of this study was to assess the quality, acceptability and factors influencing the acceptability of the use of routine verbal opt-out strategy for HIV testing during pregnancy for women attending antenatal clinics in the Kassena-Nankana district of northern Ghana. A cross-sectional analytical study design was used in this study. The study was conducted in the Kassena-Nankana district of northern Ghana using a structured questionnaire in face to face exit interviews with pregnant women after they had completed their first antenatal clinic visit. A total of 251 women aged between 15-49 years were interviewed after informed consent had been obtained from them. Data was captured with Epidata and analysed with EpiInfo. Cross-tabulations and logistic regression analyses were done. Of the 251 respondents who were interviewed in this survey, 85% of them were aware of MTCT, 82% knew at least one PMTCT strategy, 92% felt they had experienced good quality counselling that day at the ANC and 81% thought that the opt-out testing was acceptable. The perception of the women in the study about the quality of counselling they were given, their exposure to radio and their ethnicity were significantly associated with their acceptability of opt-out testing for HIV. While majority of the respondents felt that the quality of the counselling they received was good and a majority also felt that the opt-out strategy was acceptable, there were concerns about the quality of counselling provided. Recommendations include the need to improve counselling practices in the antenatal clinics by providing more structured information to the women. The District Health Management Team also needs to provide more information to people in the communities about PMTCT using radio as a medium.

The development of the United Nation’s Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) started at the beginning of the 20th century in order to provide a uniform legal regime for international sales contracts. The development started because of a belief that a uniform international sales convention would contribute certainty in commercial trade and decrease transaction costs for the contracting parties. The Convention was signed in Vienna 1980 and came into force in 1988 after securing the necessary number of ratifications. The CISG is automatically applied to international sale contracts in certain given situations but the contracting parties are free to exclude the Convention as applicable law in favour of another regulation. As of today, more than 25 years after the CISG came into force, the Convention is commonly being excluded as the governing law of international sales contracts. By studying surveys and academic writings, certain factors can be derived as reasons prior to an exclusion of the CISG. The factors can be referred to as unfamiliarity, time and costs, negotiation strength and standard form contracts or standard terms. Regarding unfamiliarity, the importance given to the Convention in law faculties within the signatory states, together with time and costs attributed to a familiarization process, seems to play an important role. Moreover, the Convention is associated with problems regarding a non-uniform interpretation of the Convention’s provisions within the national courts and arbitral tribunals, as well as regarding its incompleteness, meaning that there are gaps that need to be filled by national law. These problems affect the Convention’s ability to provide potential users with legal certainty and predictability, which in turn may affect the familiarity with the Convention and hence have an impact on an exclusion of the CISG.

Given the lack of regulation about the protection of collective rights in Peru, the main goal of this investigation is to show what should be some elements of the content of a due collective process. Thus each of its elements is studied taking into account the Peruvian jurisprudence and legislation. / Ante la insuficiente regulación de tutela colectiva de derechos en el Perú, el objetivo de la investigación es plantear el contenido de algunos de los elementos del derecho fundamental al debido proceso colectivo en el Perú. Para ello, se analiza los elementos que se considera relevantes tomando en consideración las características particulares de la tutela colectiva y considerando la jurisprudencia y legislación existentes en el Perú.

Class Actions Abstract This thesis deals with class actions. These are currently (and rightly so) a much-discussed topic. On March 6, 2020, the government submitted a government bill on collective proceedings, which is controversial, primarily due to its inspiration in the American class action lawsuit. The main thorn in the side of the bill's critics is that the government proposal includes the opt-out proceedings, i.e. the type of proceedings that forces the class members to deregister. It is present in the current proposal along with the opt-in proceedings, which are guided by the opposite principle. This thesis examined, in particular, the appropriateness of adopting collective proceedings into the Czech legal order and the potential problems that the proposed arrangement may cause. Regulations on collective redress in the US (which has been an original idea source for the government bill) and the Netherlands (which shares some aspects with the current version of the bill after its January amendment) were also examined. From the methodological point of view, analytical, normative, comparative, and synthetic approaches were mainly used in this thesis. First, an analysis of legislation, literature and case law was performed. The current government bill on collective proceedings was extensively commented...

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La différenciation entre les États membres de l’Union européenne s’est progressivement transformée en un leitmotiv du débat sur l’avenir de l’intégration. Ce débat a resurgi avec l’activation de la clause du retrait par le Royaume-Uni, qui pose dans un cadre renouvelé la question de la compatibilité du processus de création d’une « union sans cesse plus étroite » avec la possibilité pour les États membres d’emprunter différentes voies d’intégration. L’objectif de la présente étude est d’apporter un éclairage sur cette question, en se focalisant sur l’amplification des manifestations de la différenciation en droit positif. La première partie de l’étude vise à cerner la tension entre l’uniformité du statut d’État membre de l’Union et la participation asymétrique des États aux actions engagées pour la réalisation des objectifs assignés à l’Union. La différenciation s’avère ainsi un facteur de relativisation de l’homogénéité du statut d’État membre, sans néanmoins mettre en cause son unicité en tant que catégorie juridique. La seconde partie s’intéresse aux effets de la différenciation sur la structure de l’Union. La prise en compte de la différence d’implication des États n’est pas sans incidence sur le système institutionnel et juridique de l’Union, sans que cela traduise un désordre affectant l’intégrité de l’Union. Il devient alors évident que, dans la creatio continua que constitue la construction européenne, la différenciation pose une question de degré, plutôt que de principe. / Differentiation between the Member States of the European Union has gradually turned into a leitmotif of the debate regarding the future of the European integration. This debate re-emerged in the context of the activation of the withdrawal clause by the United Kingdom, by raising once more the question of the compatibility of the "ever closer union" concept with the possibility for the Member States to follow different paths of integration. The aim of this study is to clarify this question by focusing on the amplification of the various forms of differentiation in positive law. The first part of the study aims to identify the contrast between the uniformity of the EU membership and the asymmetrical participation of the Member States in actions undertaken to achieve the objectives assigned to the Union. Differentiation proves thus to be a relativizing factor of the homogeneity of the Member State's status, without, however, questioning its uniqueness as a legal category. The second part of the study focuses on the effects of differentiation on the structure of the Union. The different extent of participation of each Member State in EU policies has an impact on the Union's institutional and legal framework, even though this impact does not create a disorder affecting the integrity of the Union as such. It is thus apparent that within the creatio continua of the European construction, differentiation poses more a question of degree rather than principle.

La « norme facultative » n’est pas reconnue en droit. Pourtant, elle renvoie à un phénomène singulierauquel les juristes se trouvent de plus en plus confrontés. Celui-ci est porteur de normes non obligatoires, enmarge des instruments juridiques traditionnels. Ces normes ont en commun une mise en œuvre tributaired’un consentement préalable de leurs destinataires, ce qui signifie qu’elles sont laissées à leur libredisposition et qu’ils peuvent les utiliser entièrement ou seulement en partie, selon leur convenance.Facultatives, elles supposent la reconnaissance d’une normativité distincte de l’obligatoriété et del’impérativité. Elles tirent leur caractère normatif du fait qu’elles constituent à la fois des actes de langageayant force illocutoire et des modèles pour agir.En raison de leur originalité, leur intégration en droit est susceptible d’entraîner des bouleversementsdans la théorie des normes. En effet, la reconnaissance de la norme facultative conduit à s’interroger sur laplace du facultatif au sein des catégories de contenus normatifs. À côté des contenus normatifs classiquesconçus à partir de l’obligation, à savoir le prescriptif, le prohibitif et le permissif, le « facultatif » désigne unautre contenu normatif correspondant aux normes de faculté tournées vers le « normativement souhaitable ».Ces normes sont porteuses d’une faculté de choisir, autrement dit, une opportunité normative ouverte audestinataire et demandant à être saisie. Une fois qu’elles ont fait l’objet d’une adhésion, elles s’introduisentdans un « lien normatif». / The « voluntary norm » is not recognized in law. Yet, it refers to a peculiar phenomenon that juristshave increasingly to deal with. It is associated with noncompulsory norms, outside the traditional legal tools.These norms share a tributary implementation of a prior agreement from their recipients, which means theycan freely dispose of them and use them fully or partly, at their convenience.Being voluntary, the norms involve the recognition of a normativity distinct from the bindingnessand imperativity. They draw their standards-relative feature from the fact that they establish bothillocutionary speech acts and patterns to operate.As a result of their originality, their incorporation into law is likely to cause some changes in thetheory of norms. Indeed, the recognition of the voluntary norm leads to question the position of the voluntaryfeature within the categories of standards-relative contents. Besides the classical standards-relative contentsbuilt upon what is compulsory, that is the prescriptiveness, prohibitiveness and permissiveness, the“voluntaryness” refers to another standards-relative content which corresponds to the voluntary normsfocused on what is normatively desirable. These standards include the capacity of choice, in other words, astandards-relative opportunity opened to the recipient and asking to be seized. And once they obtain anadhesion, they get into a “standards-relative bond”.