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Abstract The characterisation and stability of coal slurries for introduction into an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP OES) and the application of slurries in the analysis of coal was investigated. The importance of rheology and the stability of the coal slurries on the analytical results produced by ICP OES was demonstrated. The homogeneity and stability of various coal slurries were characterised by sedimentation tests, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), zeta potential and viscosity measurements. The porosities and surface areas of different South African coals and a mechanism for the adsorption of the dispersants onto the coals were determined using low-temperature nitrogen physisorption studies. The possibility of partially solubulising the coal in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) was investigated. SEM indicated that DMF solubulised coal fines and that 0.1% (m/v) Triton X-100 with 10% (v/v) DMFresulted in well dispersed slurries relative to other dispersants (glycerol, PEI and water). Slurry analysis of coarse and ground coal in 0.1% (m/v) Triton X-100, showed that higher emission intensities and better precision was obtained when using ground coal. This was confirmed by lower RSDs (less than 5% for most of the elements analysed) relative to the unground, coarse coal. Glycerol slurries gave higher RSDs (higher than 5% for most of the elements) most of the time, thus negatively influencing the precision of measurement. Physisorption studies indicated that ground coal had up to ten times higher surface areas than coarse coal. The higher surface areas for fine ground coals suggested why they were better dispersed and thus better transported into the plasma, resulting in higher emission signals. Zeta potentials indicated that for all dispersants, the coal particles were well repelled from each other, although SEM pictures indicated better dispersion for 0.1% (m/v) Triton X-100 with 10% (v/v) DMF. It was demonstrated that higher intensities and higher precision could be obtained with well dispersed and stable coal slurries.

Atmospheric pressure microplasmas are uniquely characterized by their very high energy densities and also by their small discharge sizes. These properties allow for unique applications in plasma processing technologies. We have investigated the operational characteristics of microplasmas at higher energy densities and smaller sizes by operating microplasma configurations at high pressure conditions. We studied the discharge and analyzed its variation with changes in current and pressure. The discharge was analyzed by microscopic visualization and data from the images and was processed to measure the current density and estimate charged particle density. By increasing the pressure beyond 200 psi and by minimizing the discharge current required for sustaining the plasma, we have been able to achieve discharge sizes of 7 mu m in nitrogen and as small as 20 μm in helium. Optical emission spectroscopic studies were carried out to measure gas temperature and vibrational temperature using the nitrogen 2nd positive system. With increase in pressure, the transition from non-equilibrium plasma to equilibrium plasma was also studied using the OES temperature measurements. iv Temperature measurements are also used to estimate normalized current densities. Normalized current density results obtained after introducing the corrected effective pressure based on the increased gas temperature are close to the value of 400 mu A /cm^2*Torr^2 obtained for low pressure normal glow discharges in nitrogen. This research presents further validation of the general operational characteristics of microplasmas being pressure scaled versions of normal glow discharges. Attained energy densities are ten to twenty times higher than in atmospheric pressure microplasmas. Discharge sizes are also significantly smaller, decreasing with increasing pressure, but the scaling is with density ‘nd’ rather than pressure ‘Pd’ due to the increase in gas temperature with pressure, indicating a dependence on collisional processes. We can infer that at higher pressures, the operational characteristics of more complex plasma discharges like dielectric barrier discharges, RF plasmas, etc. follow scaling patterns, transitions and limits similar to the microplasma discharge studied in this thesis.

A água de coco é um isotônico natural, uma bebida pouco calórica e muito nutritiva, representando 1,4 % do mercado de refrigerantes e de isotônicos artificiais. Aliado ao crescente mercado interno e externo, surge os processos de conservação com o intuito de preservação da água de coco fora do fruto, facilitando a comercialização e aumentando o tempo de vida de prateleira. Considerando o pressuposto, esse trabalho teve como objetivo principal avaliar a influência dos processos de conservação, ultrafiltração, congelamento e pasteurização, na concentração de Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Se e Zn em água de coco. As determinações foram feitas por espectrometria de emissão óptica com plasma indutivamente acoplado e espectrometria de absorção atômica com atomização eletrotérmica. Investigação no sentido de determinar espécies livres de Se4+ e Se6+, em água de coco, por geração de hidretos e pré-concentração na superfície de um tubo de grafite modificada com Ir também foi objetivo desse trabalho. Os estudos foram realizados por meio das determinações das concentrações totais dos elementos e em diferentes frações (filtrado e resíduo), obtidas após ultrafiltração com membrana de celulose (0,100 e 0,025 µm). Em todos os processos de conservação estudados, exceto na ultrafiltração, as concentrações totais dos elementos de interesse foram preservadas. A ultrafiltração com filtro de 0,025 μm promoveu a retenção de uma quantidade significativa de Fe (30%) e Zn (50 %). A influência dos processos de conservação, com base na distribuição dos elementos de interesse, mostrou uma tendência de variação na distribuição de Cu, Fe e Zn na água de coco pasteurizada e em todos os elementos na congelada, sobretudo para aquelas com tempo de congelamento superior a 30 dias. A especiação de Se6+ e Se4+ foi feita após redução do Se6+ com 2,0 mol L-1 HCl + 1 mol L-1 KBr e aquecimento por microondas focalizadas em microfrascos, apresentando cerca de 95 % de eficiência na redução na ausência da amostra de água de coco. / The coconut water is a natural isotonic, nutritive and low caloric drink, corresponding to 1.4 % of the soft drink and artificial isotonic market store. The conservation processes of the coconut water appear in association to the expansion of the internal and external market, increasing the shelf-life of the product and its comercialization. The objective of this work was evaluate the influence of the conservation processes, such as, ultrafiltration, freezing and pasteurization based on the concentrations of Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Se and Zn in the coconut water. The determinations were done by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The investigation of free-species of Se4+ and Se6+, in coconut water, by hydride generation and pre-concentration on the modified graphite tube surface with Ir was also the aim of this project. The studies were carried out through the determinations of the total concentration of the interest elements and in different fractions (filtrate and residue), obtained after ultrafiltration with cellulose membrane filters (0.100 and 0.025 µm). In all processes of conservation studied, except the ultrafiltration, the total concentrations were preserved. The ultrafiltration with filters of 0.025 µm promoted the retention of significant concentration of Fe (30%) e Zn (50%). Considering the distribuituion of the interest elements, the influence of the conservation processes showed a tendency of the variation in the Cu, Fe and Zn distribuition for the pasteurized coconut water, and for all elements in the frozen, mainly for frozen samples storaged for more than 30 days. The speciation of Se4+ and Se6+ was carried out after reduction of Se6+ with 2 mol L-1 HCl + 1 mol L-1 KBr and using microvials heated in a focused microwave. The reduction efficiency of the Se6+ to Se4+ was 95 %, in absence of coconut water.

O presente estudo consistiu em caracterizar quimicamente amostras de sedimentos da represa Billings, braço Rio Grande, na região Metropolitana de São Paulo, por meio da determinação da concentração de metais e outros elementos de interesse. Os parâmetros químicos escolhidos para esta caracterização, foram as concentrações de Alumínio, Arsênio, Bário, Cádmio, Chumbo, Cobre, Cromo, Ferro, Manganês, Mercúrio, Níquel, Selênio e Zinco. Esses parâmetros são também utilizados na determinação do Índice de Qualidade das Águas (com exceção do Selênio). As determinações foram efetuadas pelas técnicas analíticas de espectrometria de absorção atômica (FAAS, GFAAS e CVAAS), espectrometria de emissão ótica (ICP OES) e análise por ativação neutrônica (AAN). Essas metodologias analíticas foram avaliadas quanto à precisão, exatidão e limite de detecção e/ou quantificação para os elementos determinados, nas amostras de sedimentos. Foram discutidas também as vantagens e desvantagens de cada técnica utilizada, para cada elemento, dependendo de sua concentração. A partir dessa análise, selecionou-se a técnica mais apropriada para a determinação de cada elemento, para a implementação em análise de rotina de amostras de sedimentos. Dessa forma verificou-se que a digestão efetuada assistida por microondas em sistema fechado com ácido nítrico é eficiente para a quantificação da concentração de metais extraíveis de interesse ambiental. Verificou-se também que as técnicas escolhidas para as determinações dos metais eram igualmente eficientes. No caso dos metais Cd e Pb, com a técnica de FAAS obteve-se resultados melhores do que a técnica de ICP OES, por não apresentar interferência de matriz. Os valores de concentração para os metais As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb e Zn nas amostras de sedimentos foram comparados com os valores orientadores (TEL e PEL) do Canadian Council of Minister of the Environment (CCME). Esse projeto definiu as técnicas analíticas e parâmetros, para um melhor monitoramento dos níveis de contaminação de sedimentos por metais, fornecendo dados que possam ser utilizados para direcionar atitudes e manejos de sistemas aquáticos. / The present study chemically characterized sediment samples from the Billings reservoir, Rio Grande tributary, in the Metropolitan region of São Paulo, by determining metal concentration and other elements of interest. The chosen chemical parameters for this characterization were Aluminum, Arsenic, Barium, Cadmium, Copper, Chromium, Iron, Lead, Manganese, Mercury, Nickel, Selenium and Zinc. These parameters are also used in the water quality index, with the exception of Selenium. The concentrations were determined through different analytical techniques such as atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS, GFAAS and CVAAS), optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES) and neutron activation analysis. These analytical methodologies were assessed for precision, accuracy and detection and/or quantification limits for the sediment elements in question. Advantages and disadvantages of each technique for each element and its concentration were also discussed. From these assessment the most adequate technique was selected for the routine analysis of sediment samples for each element concentration determination. This assessment verified also that digestion in a closed microwave system with nitric acid is efficient for the evaluation of extracted metals of environmental interest. The analytical techniques chosen were equally efficient for metals determination. In the case of Cd and Pb, the FAAS technique was selected due to better results than ICP OES, as it does not present matrix interference. The concentration values obtained for metals As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn in the sediment samples were compared to Canadian Council of Minister of the Environment (CCME) TEL and PEL values.

O presente estudo consistiu em caracterizar quimicamente amostras de sedimentos da represa Billings, braço Rio Grande, na região Metropolitana de São Paulo, por meio da determinação da concentração de metais e outros elementos de interesse. Os parâmetros químicos escolhidos para esta caracterização, foram as concentrações de Alumínio, Arsênio, Bário, Cádmio, Chumbo, Cobre, Cromo, Ferro, Manganês, Mercúrio, Níquel, Selênio e Zinco. Esses parâmetros são também utilizados na determinação do Índice de Qualidade das Águas (com exceção do Selênio). As determinações foram efetuadas pelas técnicas analíticas de espectrometria de absorção atômica (FAAS, GFAAS e CVAAS), espectrometria de emissão ótica (ICP OES) e análise por ativação neutrônica (AAN). Essas metodologias analíticas foram avaliadas quanto à precisão, exatidão e limite de detecção e/ou quantificação para os elementos determinados, nas amostras de sedimentos. Foram discutidas também as vantagens e desvantagens de cada técnica utilizada, para cada elemento, dependendo de sua concentração. A partir dessa análise, selecionou-se a técnica mais apropriada para a determinação de cada elemento, para a implementação em análise de rotina de amostras de sedimentos. Dessa forma verificou-se que a digestão efetuada assistida por microondas em sistema fechado com ácido nítrico é eficiente para a quantificação da concentração de metais extraíveis de interesse ambiental. Verificou-se também que as técnicas escolhidas para as determinações dos metais eram igualmente eficientes. No caso dos metais Cd e Pb, com a técnica de FAAS obteve-se resultados melhores do que a técnica de ICP OES, por não apresentar interferência de matriz. Os valores de concentração para os metais As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb e Zn nas amostras de sedimentos foram comparados com os valores orientadores (TEL e PEL) do Canadian Council of Minister of the Environment (CCME). Esse projeto definiu as técnicas analíticas e parâmetros, para um melhor monitoramento dos níveis de contaminação de sedimentos por metais, fornecendo dados que possam ser utilizados para direcionar atitudes e manejos de sistemas aquáticos. / The present study chemically characterized sediment samples from the Billings reservoir, Rio Grande tributary, in the Metropolitan region of São Paulo, by determining metal concentration and other elements of interest. The chosen chemical parameters for this characterization were Aluminum, Arsenic, Barium, Cadmium, Copper, Chromium, Iron, Lead, Manganese, Mercury, Nickel, Selenium and Zinc. These parameters are also used in the water quality index, with the exception of Selenium. The concentrations were determined through different analytical techniques such as atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS, GFAAS and CVAAS), optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES) and neutron activation analysis. These analytical methodologies were assessed for precision, accuracy and detection and/or quantification limits for the sediment elements in question. Advantages and disadvantages of each technique for each element and its concentration were also discussed. From these assessment the most adequate technique was selected for the routine analysis of sediment samples for each element concentration determination. This assessment verified also that digestion in a closed microwave system with nitric acid is efficient for the evaluation of extracted metals of environmental interest. The analytical techniques chosen were equally efficient for metals determination. In the case of Cd and Pb, the FAAS technique was selected due to better results than ICP OES, as it does not present matrix interference. The concentration values obtained for metals As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn in the sediment samples were compared to Canadian Council of Minister of the Environment (CCME) TEL and PEL values.

Αυτή η εργασία πραγματοποιείται στα πλαίσια της ανάπτυξης της έρευνας και της μελέτης στον τομέα του πλάσματος. Βασικός της στόχος, στο πρώτο μέρος, είναι η μακροσκοπική μελέτη της ηλεκτρικής εκκένωσης αίγλης συνεχούς ρεύματος χαμηλής πίεσης σε άζωτο σε διαφορετικές συνθήκες πίεσης και αντίστασης φορτίου μέσω των χαρακτηριστικών τάσης-ρεύματος (V-I) και των παλμών ρεύματος και φωτός με τη βοήθεια του φωτοπολλαπλασιαστή. Στο δεύτερο μέρος, στόχος είναι η μικροσκοπική μελέτη των εκκενώσεων και των μετα-εκκενώσεων σε παλμική τροφοδοσία κάτω από ροή αερίου σε ατμοσφαιρική πίεση υπό διαφορετικές ηλεκτρικές και χαρακτηριστικές παραμέτρους (συχνότητα, εφαρμοζόμενη ισχύς, ροή αερίου) και διαφορετικά αέρια(άζωτο-άζωτο/οξυγόνο-άζωτο/αργό). Συνεπώς, με μια ποιοτική προσέγγιση, η ταυτοποίηση των αντιδρώντων σωματίων στη φασματοσκοπική μελέτη και η αναφορά της επίδρασης των αερίων μιγμάτων στην παραγωγή τους ολοκληρώνει τη δουλειά αυτής της διπλωματικής / This study was based on the collaboration between the laboratory’ des Gas et des Plasma’ of Pau, France and the laboratory of electrotechnic materials of University of Patras, Greece. In France, the object of this diplomatic work was the study of the discharges in dielectric barrier in different conditions of pressure, power, flow of gas and percentage of gas in different mixture (pure nitrogen, nitrogen-oxygen, and nitrogen-argon) at atmospheric pressure. The microscopic study of glow and afterglow helped us to indentify the species in the plasma and the results were able to be used in applications of treatment of surfaces. In Greece, the object of the diplomatic work was the study of discharges in low pressure in different conditions of pressure and resistance of charge in pure nitrogen. The macroscopic study helped us to analyze the characteristic curve of tendency - current and the vibrations of current and photomultiplier.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / The main aim of this study is to investigate theelectrochemical determination of two beneficial (selenium and zinc) and two toxic (chromium and vanadium) metals in the potable water within the City of Cape Town's distribution area. The Water Laboratory of the City's Scientific Services Branch analyses for these metals in their elemental state, using the Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES). This is a standard method used for the detection of trace metals. The most sensitive voltammetric method for determining these metals is by adsorptive stripping voltammetry, using a thin mercury film electrode with a glassy carbon support. This voltammetric method is used for quantitative determination of specific ionic species. Because of mercury's toxicity it is not really favoured for trace metals anymore. Many other possibilities are under investigation, e.g. bismuth-film, modified glassy carbon and antimony electrodes. The boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode has distinct advantages when used to determine metal concentrations. Advantages of BDD electrodes include lower detection limit, speciation and wider potential window. In this study cyclic voltammetry (CV) was used to determine the copper, cadmium and lead concentrations in potable water by means of square wave voltammetry (SWV) and a bare glassy carbon electrode (GCE). Furthermore, a boron-doped diamond electrode (BDDE) was used to investigate the possibilities of determining selenium, chromium and vanadium by SWV. Real samples (potable water samples) were analysed electrochemically to qualify and quantify these metals and determine whether they comply with the SANS 241:2006 drinking water guidelines.The copper, cadmium, lead and selenium peaks appear very close to the theoretical values, which indicate that these metals can be detected by SWV method, but further analysis with more samples is advised. Even though responses were observed for vanadium and chromium, it was not reliable and requires further investigation. Further studies into the analyses of zinc are also advised.

A água de coco é um isotônico natural, uma bebida pouco calórica e muito nutritiva, representando 1,4 % do mercado de refrigerantes e de isotônicos artificiais. Aliado ao crescente mercado interno e externo, surge os processos de conservação com o intuito de preservação da água de coco fora do fruto, facilitando a comercialização e aumentando o tempo de vida de prateleira. Considerando o pressuposto, esse trabalho teve como objetivo principal avaliar a influência dos processos de conservação, ultrafiltração, congelamento e pasteurização, na concentração de Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Se e Zn em água de coco. As determinações foram feitas por espectrometria de emissão óptica com plasma indutivamente acoplado e espectrometria de absorção atômica com atomização eletrotérmica. Investigação no sentido de determinar espécies livres de Se4+ e Se6+, em água de coco, por geração de hidretos e pré-concentração na superfície de um tubo de grafite modificada com Ir também foi objetivo desse trabalho. Os estudos foram realizados por meio das determinações das concentrações totais dos elementos e em diferentes frações (filtrado e resíduo), obtidas após ultrafiltração com membrana de celulose (0,100 e 0,025 µm). Em todos os processos de conservação estudados, exceto na ultrafiltração, as concentrações totais dos elementos de interesse foram preservadas. A ultrafiltração com filtro de 0,025 μm promoveu a retenção de uma quantidade significativa de Fe (30%) e Zn (50 %). A influência dos processos de conservação, com base na distribuição dos elementos de interesse, mostrou uma tendência de variação na distribuição de Cu, Fe e Zn na água de coco pasteurizada e em todos os elementos na congelada, sobretudo para aquelas com tempo de congelamento superior a 30 dias. A especiação de Se6+ e Se4+ foi feita após redução do Se6+ com 2,0 mol L-1 HCl + 1 mol L-1 KBr e aquecimento por microondas focalizadas em microfrascos, apresentando cerca de 95 % de eficiência na redução na ausência da amostra de água de coco. / The coconut water is a natural isotonic, nutritive and low caloric drink, corresponding to 1.4 % of the soft drink and artificial isotonic market store. The conservation processes of the coconut water appear in association to the expansion of the internal and external market, increasing the shelf-life of the product and its comercialization. The objective of this work was evaluate the influence of the conservation processes, such as, ultrafiltration, freezing and pasteurization based on the concentrations of Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Se and Zn in the coconut water. The determinations were done by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The investigation of free-species of Se4+ and Se6+, in coconut water, by hydride generation and pre-concentration on the modified graphite tube surface with Ir was also the aim of this project. The studies were carried out through the determinations of the total concentration of the interest elements and in different fractions (filtrate and residue), obtained after ultrafiltration with cellulose membrane filters (0.100 and 0.025 µm). In all processes of conservation studied, except the ultrafiltration, the total concentrations were preserved. The ultrafiltration with filters of 0.025 µm promoted the retention of significant concentration of Fe (30%) e Zn (50%). Considering the distribuituion of the interest elements, the influence of the conservation processes showed a tendency of the variation in the Cu, Fe and Zn distribuition for the pasteurized coconut water, and for all elements in the frozen, mainly for frozen samples storaged for more than 30 days. The speciation of Se4+ and Se6+ was carried out after reduction of Se6+ with 2 mol L-1 HCl + 1 mol L-1 KBr and using microvials heated in a focused microwave. The reduction efficiency of the Se6+ to Se4+ was 95 %, in absence of coconut water.

Abstract In this thesis, different spectroscopic methods are used for studying metals. Electron spectroscopy is applied for the study of binding energy shifts between atomic vapor and solid metals. Photoionization and Auger decay of high temperature aluminum vapors are investigated. Ionization of atomic chromium metal vapor by light absorption is studied with synchrotron radiation and time-of-flight ion mass spectroscopy. Optical spectroscopy is used for studying light emission from electric arc furnace plasma in experimental apparatuses developed during this work. Experimental techniques and sample preparation methods are presented.