Chapter 1: Supramolecular gels and their applications Gels are viscoelastic materials composed of a solid-like three dimensional fibrillar network that is embedded in a liquid. Supramolecular gels belong to a class of gels which are derived from low molecular weight compounds (typically < 1000). A variety of non-covalent interactions like H-bonding, π-π stacking, donor-acceptor, metal coordination, solvophobic and van der Waals interactions are involved in the formation of the self-assembled fibrous networks (SAFIN’s) in these gels. These non-covalent interactions are weak in nature and as a result, these gels can be reverted back to sol by heating and this process is reversible. These gels are further classified as hydrogels, organogels and aero/xerogels depending on the medium they encompass. Although low molecular weight gelators were known in the early part of the 20th century, it is only in the last two decades that this field has generated widespread interest among scientists. In the 90s, the investigations on these kinds of gels mainly focused on designing new gelator molecules. However, during the last decade, the research interest in this field has shifted more towards designing functional gels. Such gels Scheme 1. Various applications of functional supramolecular gels have been extensively utilized in the templated synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials, in making hybrid materials, as synthetic light harvesting systems, as sensors, in the field of biomaterials such as drug delivery, screening of enzyme inhibitors and tissue engineering and also in the field of organic optoelectronics. In this chapter a few selected examples from each of these fields are highlighted. Chapter 2: Charge transfer induced organogels from 2,3dialkoxyanthracenes and 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone 2,3-Di-n-alkoxyanthracenes formed charge transfer (CT) interaction promoted organogels in the presence of electron acceptor 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone (TNF). These dialkoxyanthracences (in the absence of TNF) have been reported previously to form gels in a variety of organic solvents. The gelation property was found to be dependent on the chain length and the derivatives with C6-C16 chains were found to be gelators. On the other hand derivatives with C5-C1 chains were found to be non-gelators. It was found that TNF not only modulated the gelation property of the efficient organogelators, it also transformed the weak and non-gelators into efficient gelators. This charge transfer induced gelation was observed for the derivatives with C10-C4 chains in alcoholic and hydrocarbon solvents whereas the shorter chain derivatives C3-C1 did not form gels. Several other alkoxy and dialkoxy derivatives with substituents in other positions did not show gelation in the presence of TNF. These results suggested that two structural aspects are necessary for these derivatives to form CT gels- the alkoxy chain length and the position of the alkoxy substituents. The thermal stability of all these gels was found to be maximum with a 1:1 stoichiometry of the donor and the acceptor. The common observation, the intensification of color in going from the sol to the gel phase, supported the crucial role of the charge transfer interaction behind the formation of these gels. The rheological characterization of the gels demonstrated that they Figure 1. Chemical structures of 2,3-dialkoxyanthracenes and TNF (middle) and a fluorescence confocal microscopy image (left) and a photograph (right) of DDOA-TNF gel. behaved like viscoelastic soft solids. Chapter 3: A new class of perfluorinated derivatives of bile acids: Synthesis and gelation properties A new class of bile acid based gelators was designed by connecting the side chains of the facially amphiphilic bile acid with perfluoroalkyl chains of different lengths through two different ester linkages-–O-(CO)-and –(CO)-OCH2-. All these three structural aspects i.e. the bile acid moiety, the fluoroalkyl chain length and the spacer were found to influence the gelation properties of the derivatives. Depending on them, there was a variation in terms of the nature of the solvent gelated, the CGCs, the mechanical properties of the gels, etc among the derivatives. The deoxycholic and lithocholic derivatives with the spacer –O-(CO)-formed gels in aromatic hydrocarbons and also in DMSO depending on the fluoroalkyl chain length. The mechanical properties of the gels formed in DMSO were found to be dependent on the bile acid moiety and the fluoroalkyl chain length. In general, the deoxy analogues showed higher elasticity, stiffness and yield stress values for their gels than the litho derivatives. The perfluorinated derivatives having the spacer –(CO)-OCH2-showed gelation properties in organic-aqueous media and in DMSO. Interestingly, organogelation was observed in the deoxy and lithocholic derivatives from both spacer series whereas in the literature most of the bile acid based organogelators are derived from cholic acid. (b) (c) Figure 2. (a) Perfluorinated derivatives of bile acids, (b) photographs of a few DMSO gels and (c) TEM image of a xerogel of a deoxy derivative Chapter 4: Composite aerogels and organogels from 2,3didecyloxyanthracene and bile-perfluoro derivatives Aerogels are unique materials among solids. They have extremely low densities (up to 95% of their volume is air), large pores and high inner surface area. As a result aerogels have very interesting physical properties such as extremely low thermal conductivity, low sound velocity and high optical transparency. There are only a few reports of aerogel formation by low molecular weight gelators. We have investigated the aerogel formation ability of three long 7 chain perfluoroalkyl esters (two deoxycholic and one lithocholic derivative, chart 1) in supercritical CO2. A deoxy derivative, formed aerogel in sc-CO2. When mixed with DDOA (which has been reported previously to form good aerogels in sc-CO2), the perfluoro compound formed aerogels of better quality. The mixed aerogels were characterized by the presence of very large fibers in the micron range (as observed in the aerogel formed by only the fluoro derivative) as well as fibers of smaller size observed in pure DDOA aerogel. We also investigated the behavior of the composite systems in organic solvents. It was found that in DMSO, another deoxy derivative, Figure 3. SEM images of a mixed aerogel of DDOA-DC23C13F27 (left) and a mixed organogel (DMSO) of DDOA-DC23C11F23 (right). DC23C11F23 formed gels with higher thermal stability and improved mechanical properties compared to the native gels of the perfluoro compound or DDOA. Chapter 5: Hydrogels from lanthanide(III) cholates: Tunable, multiple color luminescence from hydrogels and xerogels In this chapter, facile hydrogel formation by several lanthanide cholates is reported. When sodium cholate was added to aqueous solutions of Nd(III), Sm(III), Eu(III), Gd(III), Tb(III), Dy(III), Ho(III), Er(III), Tm(III) and Yb(III) and sonicated, the mixtures formed gels within a few seconds. The gels thus obtained were transparent/translucent and thermoirreversible. Rheological measurements showed that all of them could be classified as viscoelastic soft solids. A naphthalene derivative, 2,3-dihyroxynaphthalene was found to sensitize Tb(III) emission very efficiently in its cholate gel when doped in micromolar concentrations. The importance of the gel matrix behind sensitization of Tb(III) was demonstrated by the inefficiency of the same sensitizer DHN in an SDS micellar solution. In mixed gels of Tb(III)-Eu(III) doped with DHN, a energy transfer pathway was found to occur from the sensitized Tb(III) to Eu(III). By a simple tuning of the ratio of these two lanthanide ions, multiple color emissive gels could be made.The emissive properties of the hydrogels were retained in the xerogels and the suspensions of these xerogels in n-hexane were used for making luminescent coatings on glass surface. Figure 4. Tunable, multi-color luminescent hydrogels and xerogels of lanthanide cholates

The thesis work described herein explores two avenues of post-functionalization of conjugated polymers using ‘click’ chemistry. The first avenue utilizes the Strain-Promoted Alkyne-Azide Cycloaddition (SPAAC) and the second an Inverse Electron-Demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA). In the first part of this thesis, various azide moieties were SPAAC ‘clicked’ onto a dibenzocyclooctyne-containing polymer, such as small molecules like para-phenyl-nitroazide, as well as larger azide-terminated chains like polystyrene and polyethylene glycol. Host-guest chemistry and self-healing organogels were also explored. The synthesis of each component, including the cyclooctyne diamine monomer, dialdehyde comonomer, resulting polymer, various azide moieties, as well as the SPAAC click reactions, are all described in detail along with extensive characterization. Similarly, the second part of this thesis involved the synthesis and characterization of several components, including the tetrazine monomer, fluorene comonomer, resulting polymer, and various TCO derivatives for the post-polymerization IEDDA ‘click’ reactions onto the backbone. Some of the click reactions described include small molecule TCO derivatives, polymeric PEG TCO, and a difunctional linker to generate a crosslinked foam. / Conjugated polymers attract significant attention due to their interesting optoelectronic and physical properties. Over the past few decades, tremendous effort has been devoted to expanding the structural diversity and applications of this class of macromolecules. The pursuit of structural variability of conjugated polymers has resulted in a broad range of research to understand their structure-property relationships via functionalization. This functionalization is crucial for tailoring performance in any given application. Thus, the ability to synthesize a library of homologous polymers would prove very useful. Efficiency is of utmost importance when creating a library of homologous conjugated polymers, as the faster a library can by synthesized, the sooner said polymers can be screened for any desirable properties. Such an approach requires a post-polymerization functionalization strategy, whereby a progenitor polymer undergoes efficient reactions at each repeat unit of the backbone. The work presented in this thesis involves synthesizing a reactive conjugated polymer scaffold, followed by efficiently post-polymerization functionalization via “click” chemistry. Two elegant click reactions are described in this work; the Strain-Promoted Alkyne-Azide Cycloaddition (SPAAC) and Inverse Electron-Demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA). The SPAAC reaction allowed for rapid functionalization of triazole moieties on a dibenzocyclooctyne-containing polymer backbone, creating a small polymer library with a consistent degree of polymerization (DP). Grafting with polystyrene and polyethylene glycol azide-terminated polymers allowed the efficient syntheses of a series of graft-co-polymers with Mn values up to 800 kDa and varying solubilities. Secondly, The IEDDA reaction was applied to a poly(tetrazine-co-fluorene) conjugated polymer, which resulted in the rapid and quantitative functionalization of the polymer backbone with trans-cyclooctene derivatives. These reactive conjugated polymers were explored in a variety of applications, including supramolecular chemistry and gel formation. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Conjugated polymers are a class of macromolecular materials that attract significant attention due to their interesting behaviors and properties. Under certain conditions, these polymers even display conductivities like that of metals. As such, they show promise in applications such as organic solar cells, chemical sensors, organic light-emitting diodes, and supercapacitors. Over the past few decades, tremendous effort has been devoted to expanding on the types of conjugated polymers as well as their structural diversity. This, of course, has resulted in polymers that exhibit vastly different behaviours depending on what they are made of. As certain applications (e.g.: solar cells) require polymers with very specific properties, being able to ‘tune’ a conjugated polymer to ‘match’ a required property would be extremely useful. This tuning of polymer properties can be successfully accomplished by attaching different structures onto the polymer chain by utilizing a reaction known as ‘post-polymerization functionalization’. In doing so, a starting reactive polymer can be transformed into an entirely different polymer with specific chemical properties and behaviors. The work presented in this thesis involves synthesizing two types of conjugated polymers and attaching various structures onto their backbones to yield different properties. The synthesis, characterization, and potential applications of said polymers are described herein.

Les biomatériaux de type hydrogel ou organogel obtenus à partir de molécules de faible masse molaire suscitent de plus en plus un vif intérêt autant sur le plan fondamental que sur le plan applicatif. Le travail, exposé ici, a pour objectif de synthétiser des composés amphiphiles présentant des variations de structure afin de pouvoir établir des relations entre la structure de ces composés et leurs propriétés gélifiantes. Nous avons été amenés à synthétiser des composés (bimodulaires et trimodulaires) avec et sans motif de jonction de type polyoxyéthylénique entre la partie peptidique et le module hydrophobe. Dans un deuxième temps, d?autres molécules amphiphiles gélifiantes ont été préparées, en substituant le motif polyoxyéthylénique par une entité dérivée du glycérol, pour permettre d'obtenir des composés d'origine renouvelable mais également pour diversifier la source de matières premières. Les composés visés ont été obtenus et leur comportement en solution a été étudié par différentes techniques (tensiométrie, conductimétrie, infrarouge,...). Certains d'entre eux, présentant des propriétés gélifiantes, associés aux sels de bore, ont été utilisés pour préserver le matériau bois (Pin Sylvestre). Les essais effectués se sont révélés concluant en termes de réduction du lessivage du bore car les tests avec Poria Placenta (champignon) cultivé sur un milieu gélosé ou avec les Réticulitermes Flavipès (termites) ont montré qu'un bois traité par l'association « borax-hydrogel » reste protégé même après lessivage / Biomaterials hydrogel or organogel obtained from low molecular weight molecules give rise to an increasing interest both in terms on the fundamental and application domain. The work outlined here, aims to synthesize amphiphilic compounds with structural changes in order to establish relationships between the structure of these compounds and their gelling properties. We were asked to synthesize compounds (bimodular and trimodular) with and without cause polyoxyethylene type junction between the peptide and the hydrophobic unit. In a second step, other gelling amphiphilic molecules were prepared by substituting the polyoxyethylene pattern derived by an entity glycerol, allowing to obtain compounds from renewable sources but also to diversify the source of raw materials. The target compounds were obtained and their behavior in solution has been studied by different techniques (tensiometry, conductivity, infrared,...). Some of them, with gelling properties, associated with boron salts have been used to preserve the wood material (Scots pine). The tests proved conclusive in terms of reducing the leaching of boron as tests with Poria placenta (mushroom) grown on an agar medium or with Reticulitermes flavipes (termite) showed that wood treated with the association "borax-hydrogel" is protected even after leaching

Ce travail de thèse s'intéresse d'une part aux dimères rigides de tétrathiafulvalène (TTF) et à la modulation de la valence mixte intramoléculaire et, d'autre part, à des dérivés tris(TTF) possédant la capacité de conduire par auto-assemblage à des organogels et fibres, éventuellement présentant une chiralité supramoléculaire. Lors d'une première partie, des composés de type (TTF)2(XY) (X = PPh, Y = PPh ou SiMe2) ont été synthétisés et caractérisés par diffraction de rayons X sur monocristal. Leur réactivité et chimie de coordination ont été étudiées et l'état de valence mixte intramoléculaire dans les espèces oxydées a été caractérisé par des moyes spectroscopiques et théoriques. Dans la deuxième partie, une nouvelle famille de composés qui allient propriétés électroactives, grâce aux unités TTF, avec un haut degré d'organisation supramoléculaire hélicoïdale est introduite. Le composé Ph[CONH-bipy-NHCO-TTF(SEt)2]3 montre des bonne propriétés de gélation dans les solvants chlorés. Un xérogel, formé par deux types de fibres, est obtenu et devient conducteur à la suite du dopage à l'iode. Les composés (S)- et (R)-Ph[CONH-bipy-NHCO-TTF(S-2-méthylbutyle)2]3, possédant des groupes isopentyle chiraux, forment des fibres d'une seule hélicité, comme indiqué par des études de microscopie optique et électronique de balayage, de spectroscopie de dichroïsme circulaire et par calculs de mécanique moléculaire et de dynamique moléculaire.

Cette thèse a trait aux paramètres dynamiques de la RMN, ceux-ci permettant d'accéder aux différents types de mouvement : la réorientation moléculaire, accessible via les paramètres de relaxation, et la translation, directement caractérisée par le coefficient d'auto-diffusion. Après une introduction aux concepts théoriques de la relaxation de spin, c'est à travers trois applications que nous mettons en oeuvre différents paramètres dynamiques (temps de relaxation, paramètres d'Effet Overhauser Nucléaire, coefficients d'auto-diffusion). L'interprétation des résultats expérimentaux conduit à des informations très variées qui ne concernent pas uniquement la dynamique des molécules mais également leur structure, comme par exemple les distances interatomiques, ou les arrangements dans des systèmes supramoléculaires. La caractérisation structurale et dynamique d'un organogel constitue le fil conducteur de cette thèse. Chacun des trois chapitres suivants est en effet dédié à une technique RMN appliquée, entre autres, à ce système afin de mettre en évidence la relation qui existe entre la structure du gélateur et son pouvoir gélifiant, et de déterminer le rôle joué par le solvant dans le processus d'organogélation. Deux autres applications sont envisagées : au troisième chapitre, consacré à la relaxation croisée, nous mettons en évidence la configuration Z ou E d'un intermédiaire de synthèse; dans le quatrième chapitre, consacré à la diffusion translationnelle, nous proposons une méthode très simple pour analyser les composants d'un mélange de trois terpènes à partir des coefficients d'auto-diffusion déterminés par RMN du carbone-13 / This thesis deals with NMR dynamical parameters, the latter leading to the two types of molecular motion: reorientation, obtained via relaxation parameters, and translation motion, directly probed by self-diffusion coefficient. First, spin relaxation concepts are introduced theoretically. Then, various dynamical parameters (relaxation times, Nuclear Overhauser Effet parameters, self-diffusion coefficients) are envisioned for studying three different systems. The interpretation of experimental results provides a variety of information that does not only concern the dynamics of molecules but also their structure, such as interatomic distances, or their organization in supramolecular systems. Structural and dynamic characterization of an organogel is the lead of this thesis. Indeed, each of the three following chapters is dedicated to a given NMR technique which is applied, among other things, to this system in order to study: i) the correlation between the gelator structure and its gel formation ability, ii) the role played by the solvent in the gelification process. Two other applications are considered: in the third chapter, devoted to cross-relaxation, we discriminate the Z or E configurations of a synthetic intermediate. In the fourth chapter, devoted to translational diffusion, we propose a very simple method for analyzing a mixture of three terpenes from NMR carbon-13 experiments

Chapter 1. Supramolecular Gels and their Applications Supramolecular gels are viscoelastic materials composed of a solid like three dimensional fibrillary network that is embedded in a liquid. Supramolecular gels are derived from low molecular weight compounds (typically MW < 3000). In the 1990s, the investigations on gels were mainly focused on designing new gelator molecules. However, during the last decade, research focus shifted towards designing functional gels and their applications. As a result of extensive work in this area, gels have been found to have varied applications in the templated synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials, hybrid materials, light harvesting systems, as responsive system and sensors, and also in drug delivery, tissue engineering etc. This chapter gives an introduction to supramolecular hydrogels/organogels and relevant bile acid chemistry touching upon the gelation properties of the bile acid derivatives. Diverse applications of the supramolecular gels are also illustrated with several examples. Scheme 1. Various applications of functional supramolecular gels Chapter 2. Bile Acid derived novel Hydrogelators Part 1. Hydrogelation of Bile acid protected Amino acids and Hybrid Materials Hydrogels from low molecular weight molecules have significant importance in biomedical applications. In this chapter, we report injectable hydrogel formation from bile acid conjugates of various amino acids. Hydrogel formation was found to be dependent on multiple factors such as bile acid backbone structure, linkage between the bile acid and the amino acid, pH etc. Single crystal structures of lithocholyl phenylalanine, lithocholyl-glycine, lithocholyl-L valine and lithocholyl-L alanine were also determined. Finally, the hydrogel frameworks were utilized to produce hybrid materials with Gold and ZnO nanoparticles. Scheme 2. (a) Crystal structure of LC-LF-OH gelator molecule, (b) photograph of gel, (c) SEM and (d) AFM image of LC-LF-OH xerogel Part 2. Hydrogelation of bile acid-dipeptide conjugates and in situ synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles in the hydrogel matrix Fabricating supramolecular hydrogels with embedded metal nanostructures are important for the design of novel hybrid nanocomposite materials for diverse applications such as bio sensing and chemo sensing platforms, catalytic and antibacterial functional materials etc. Supramolecular self-assembly of bile acid-dipeptide conjugates have led to the formation of new supramolecular hydrogels. Gelation of these molecules depends strongly on the hydrophobic character of the bile acids. Ag+ and Au3+ salts were incorporated in the hydrogels, and photo reduction and chemical reduction led to the in situ generation of Ag and Au NPs in these supramolecular hydrogels without the addition of any external stabilizing agent. The color, size and shape of silver nanoparticles formed by photo reduction depended on the amino acid residue on the side chain. Furthermore, the hydrogel-Ag nanocomposite was tested for its antimicrobial activity. Scheme 3. Bile acid based dipeptide hydrogelators and soft hybrid materials Chapter 3. Sonogels of bile salts of In(III): use in the formation of self-templated indium sulfide nanostructures In this chapter, facile hydrogel formation by Indium(III) cholate and deoxy cholate are reported. When In(III) solution was added to aqueous solutions of sodium cholate and sodium deoxy cholate and sonicated, the mixtures formed gels. The gels thus obtained were translucent/turbid and thermos irreversible. Rheological measurements showed that all of them could be classified as viscoelastic soft solids. Scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy showed typical entangled three dimensional fibrous networks. The In-Ch hydrogel were further used to prepare nanostructured In2S3 in which the cholate units possibly acted as a surfactant to confine the growth of the Nano flakes. Scheme 4. In-Ch hydrogel (Photograph and SEM image of In-Ch gel) Chapter 4. Palladium-Hydrogel Nanocomposite for C-C Coupling Reactions Supported metallic nanoparticles are important composite materials owing to their enormous potential for applications in various fields. This chapter describes the in situ formation of palladium nanoparticles in a calcium-cholate (Ca-Ch) hydrogel by reduction with sodium cyan borohydride. The hydrogel matrix appeared to assist the controlled growth as well as stabilization of palladium nanoparticles. The palladium nanoparticle/Ca-Ch hydrogel hybrid was characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Furthermore, PdNP/Ca-Ch hybrid xerogel was shown to act as an active catalyst for Suzuki reaction under aqueous aerobic conditions, up to 4 cycles. This PdNP/Ca-Ch xerogel retained its catalytic activities on storage for several months. Scheme 5. Palladium-hydrogel nanocomposite for C-C coupling reactions in water Chapter 5. Sensitization of Terbium/Europium in self-assembled cholate hydrogel: An approach towards the detection of amine vapours "Luminescent" lanthanides have intrinsic low molar absorptivity, although this problem can be addressed by complexing the lanthanide ion with suitable chelating ligands which improve the luminescence properties drastically. However the design of such systems often involves careful planning and laborious synthetic steps. It is therefore desirable to have a simpler way to sensitize lanthanides with high efficiency. It was observed in our group that trivalent lanthanides formed hydrogels on the addition of sodium cholate. This chapter describes the discovery of the several biphenyl derivatives (such as 4-biphenylcarbaxaldehyde, 4-acetylbiphenyl) for sensitization of Tb(III) and Eu(III) in lanthanide hydrogels. Sensitization of Tb(III) and Eu(III) were observed by doping was characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Furthermore, PdNP/Ca-Ch hybrid xerogel was shown to act as an active catalyst for Suzuki reaction under aqueous aerobic conditions, up to 4 cycles. This PdNP/Ca-Ch xerogel retained its catalytic activities on storage for several months. Scheme 6. Schematic representation of the sensitization process (the arrangement of themolecules in the gel fiber is arbitrary)(For figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)

Le développement de nouveaux systèmes pour l’administration de médicaments par la voie transcutanée ne cesse de susciter un intérêt croissant pour élaborer de nouvelles stratégies visant à traverser la barrière du stratum corneum et transporter efficacement les agents thérapeutiques à travers la peau. Bien que l’administration par voie orale soit la plus favorable chez les patients, une faible biodisponibilité est souvent rencontrée pour certains médicaments et notamment pour les produits biopharmaceutiques. Ainsi, la peau représente un site accessible et pratique pour l’absorption de médicaments, mais détient un potentiel encore sous-estimé comme voie alternative à l’administration par voie orale. La conception de systèmes d'administration parentérale prolongée de médicaments capables de contrôler la libération du médicament au long terme et réduire la fréquence d’administration des médicaments pourrait présenter une option de traitement attrayante. Parmi les systèmes d’implants se formant in situ, les implants d’organogel offrent de nombreux avantages pour libérer au long terme une grande variété de molécules médicamenteuses et notamment des substances actives lipophiles piégées dans les huiles gélifiées. Cependant si l’objectif visé est une administration minimalement invasive et rapide de substances actives, les timbres de microaiguilles dissolvant dans la peau seraient d’un grand intérêt en raison de leur auto-administration, leur sécurité d’emploi et leur capacité à administrer des médicaments à base de peptides. Malgré les effets bénéfiques de ces deux nouveaux systèmes d’administration, les rôles exacts de la composition des organogels et des paramètres géométriques des microaiguilles hydrosolubles sur la libération de médicaments restent peu explorés. Le premier objectif principal de cette thèse était de déterminer l’effet de la composition des organogels se formant in situ par rapport au pourcentage massique en organogélifiant de bas poids moléculaire (acide 12-hydroxystéarique, 12-HSA) et de l’ajout de tensioactif (polysorbate 80) dans le système sur le taux de libération de substances actives hydrophile (acyclovir) et lipophile (clotrimazole). De plus, l'influence des paramètres de composition de ces organogels sur l'induction d'effets toxiques au niveau des fibroblastes de prépuce humain a également été étudiée. Pour ce faire, des systèmes d’organogel formant un dépôt sous-cutané à base de 12-HSA ont été développés en utilisant une faible quantité de solvant organique miscible à l’eau (N-méthyl-2-pyrrolidone) en tant qu’agent inhibant partiellement la gélation, favorisant ainsi l’injection des formulations. Au contact du milieu aqueux, les molécules de 12-HSA ont précipité en immobilisant simultanément l’huile et la substance active en son sein. Une augmentation du pourcentage massique en 12-HSA a conduit à une augmentation de la résistance du gel à la déformation grâce à la formation d’une structure de réseau en trois dimensions complexe. Cependant, l’ajout de polysorbate 80 dans le système a conduit à une structure plus fluide (de faible résistance) diminuant la capacité d’injectabilité des formulations et augmentant l’érosion du gel en surface. Ce dernier phénomène étant amplifié avec un plus faible pourcentage massique en 12-HSA. Les organogels de 12-HSA ont montré diminuer significativement les taux de libération au long terme de l’acyclovir comparé aux formulations de clotrimazole in vitro et ex vivo à travers la peau de porc excisé. La toxicité cellulaire était dépendante du pourcentage massique en 12-HSA et du type de culture cellulaire utilisée. En effet, les effets cytotoxiques étaient plus élevés en augmentant la quantité de 12-HSA dans l’implant pour une sensibilité plus élevée dans la culture cellulaire tridimensionnelle que dans celle bidimensionnelle. Ces résultats semblent néanmoins influencés par le type d’huile utilisé et son potentiel cytotoxique. Le deuxième objectif principal de cette thèse était de déterminer l’effet de la hauteur des microaiguilles en forme de pyramide et solubles dans l’eau sur le taux de libération d’un peptide modèle, le growth hormone-releasing peptide-6 (GHRP-6). À cet effet, les microaiguilles ont été préparées par micro-moulage à l’aide de deux polymères biocompatibles hydrosolubles approuvés par la Food and Drug Agency (FDA), l’alcool polyvinylique (PVA) et polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Les timbres de microaiguilles ainsi développés permettaient de pénétrer efficacement dans la peau de porc tout en libérant la molécule encapsulée à l’interface entre l’épiderme et le derme supérieur. La quantification du GHRP-6 dans différentes matrices (peau, microaiguilles, plasma) a pu être réalisée grâce à une méthode analytique robuste et sensible utilisant la chromatographie liquide ultra performance couplée à la spectrométrie de masse en tandem. Les études de libération du GHRP-6 ex vivo sur la peau de porc ont montré que le taux de libération du GHRP-6 était plus élevé au long terme pour une hauteur en aiguille plus grande (800 µm contre 500 µm) tout en permettant d’augmenter l’encapsulation du GHRP-6 dans le système. En conclusion, ces résultats suggèrent que les organogels de 12-HSA pourraient constituer une approche prometteuse pour l’administration prolongée de substance active et notamment celles hydrophiles. Toutefois, les formulations développées devront être efficaces in vivo tout en minimisant les effets toxiques par l’utilisation d’huiles plus biocompatibles. Pour une libération rapide de substances actives, les timbres de microaiguilles représentent une avenue très prometteuse notamment pour les médicaments innovants de nature peptidique. Leur efficacité pour la libération de GHRP-6 et de leurs dérivés azapeptides devra être confirmée lors d’études in vivo (pharmacocinétique, pharmacodynamique, biodistribution), ce qui pourrait constituer une avancée dans l’administration de thérapie à base de peptides pour la gestion de l’inflammation chronique. / The development of novel transcutaneous drug delivery systems has gained increasing interest, with the focus on overcoming the stratum corneum barrier and efficiently transport therapeutic agents through the skin. Although oral administration is the most favorable route for patients, low bioavailability is often reported for certain drugs and especially for biopharmaceuticals. Accordingly, the skin represents an accessible and convenient site for drug absorption, but has yet to fully achieve its potential as an alternative to oral delivery. The design of parenteral sustained drug delivery systems capable of controlling long-term delivery of drugs and reducing the frequency of drug administration could present an attractive treatment option. Among in situ forming implants, in situ forming organogels offer many advantages such as controlled-release of a wide variety of drug molecules over a longer period of time, including lipophilic active substances trapped within gelled oil solutions. However, if the objective is the rapid administration of active substances, minimally invasive, dissolving microneedle patches would be of great interest due to their self-administration, their safety and their ability to deliver peptide-based drugs. Despite the beneficial effects of these two new delivery systems, the exact roles of the composition of organogels and geometrical parameters of microneedles on drug delivery are largely understudied. The first main objective of this thesis was to determine the effect of the composition of in situ forming organogels with respect to the organogelator concentration (12-hydroxystearic acid, 12-HSA) and the addition of a nonionic surfactant (polysorbate 80) to the system on the release rate of a hydrophilic (acyclovir) and a lipophilic (clotrimazole) active substances. In addition, the toxic effects of these organogels of different compositions on human foreskin fibroblasts were also studied. To do so, 12-HSA-based organogel systems forming a depot in the subcutaneous tissue have been developed using a small amount of water-miscible organic solvent (N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone) as an agent that can partially inhibit gelation, thus enhancing injectability of the formulations. Upon contact with aqueous medium, 12-HSA molecules precipitated simultaneously immobilizing the oil and the active substance therein. An increase in the concentration of 12-HSA led to an increase in the resistance of the gel to deformation thanks to the formation of a complex three-dimensional network structure. However, the addition of polysorbate 80 to the system resulted in fluid-matrix organogel (weak gel) decreasing the syringability of the formulations while increasing the erosion of the gel on the surface. The latter phenomenon is also intensified with a lower concentration of 12-HSA. 12-HSA organogels have been shown to significantly decrease acyclovir release rates for a longer time period in vitro and ex vivo through excised pig skin compared to clotrimazole formulations. Cellular cytotoxicity was dependent on the concentration of 12-HSA and the type of cell culture used. Indeed, the cytotoxic effects were higher by increasing the concentration of 12-HSA in the implant for a higher sensitivity in the three-dimensional cell culture than in the two-dimensional one. However, these results seem to be influenced by the type of oil used and its cytotoxic potential. The second main objective of this thesis was to determine the effect of dissolving pyramidal microneedles height on the release rate of a model peptide, the growth hormone-releasing peptide-6 (GHRP-6). For this purpose, the microneedles were prepared by micromolding process using two water-soluble biocompatible polymers approved by the Food and Drug Agency (FDA), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). The microneedle patches allowed the microneedles to efficiently penetrate pig skin while releasing the encapsulated molecule at the interface between the epidermis and upper dermis. The quantification of GHRP-6 in different matrices (skin, microneedles, plasma) was achieved using a robust and sensitive analytical method using ultra performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. Ex vivo GHRP-6 release studies on pig skin showed that the release rate of GHRP-6 was higher over time for high-height microneedle (800 µm vs. 500 µm) while increasing the amount of GHRP-6 loaded in microneedles. In conclusion, these results suggest that 12-HSA organogels could constitute a promising approach as a sustained-release dosage form of active substances and in particular hydrophilic ones. However, the formulations developed must be effective in vivo while minimizing toxic effects through the use of more biocompatible oils. For a rapid release of drugs, microneedle patches represent a very promising avenue, in particular for emerging peptide drugs. Their efficacy for the release of GHRP-6 and azapeptide derivatives of GHRP-6 needs to be confirmed using in vivo studies (pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, biodistribution), which may represent a breakthrough in the transdermal delivery of therapeutic peptides for the management of chronic inflammation.

Chapter 1: Functional and Responsive Supramolecular Gels In this chapter ‘supramolecular gels’ derived from small organic molecules with molecular mass of typically less than 2000 daltons are discussed. Representative examples of various low molecular weight gelators based on their natural availability and also divergent functionalities are mentioned (Scheme 1). Scheme 1 Advances in the recent years have been very rapid in the field of supramolecular chemistry of gels giving rise to ‘Tunable responsive gels’. Control of the gel property in a reversible fashion has been the highlight of responsive gels. A few of the gels which are responsive towards various stimuli such as pH, photoirradiation, cations, anions, neutral species have been discussed. Advances and scope of supramolecular gels in various applications have also been mentioned in detail with respective examples. Utilities of supramolecular gels in synthesis of nanostructures, in biology and medicine, enzyme recognition, catalysis etc are discussed. (Scheme 2). Chapter 2: Charge transfer triggered organogels of bis(bile acid)anthracene conjugates and 2,4.7-trinitrofluorenone. In this chapter the study involves the synthesis of a special class of anthracene based steroidal derivatives. The appending of two amphiphilic bile acid units imparts a unique hydrophobic/ hydrophilic balance on the chromophore. The 2,3-didecyloxyanthracene (DDOA) was reported to be a gelator of various organic solvents but none of the three bile acid derivatives of anthracene synthesized was a gelator on its own. It was also observed that dialkoxy (propyl, heptyl, decyl) derivatives of anthracene formed strong charge-transfer gels in the presence of 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone (TNF). The addition of electron deficient TNF to the steroidal derivatives of anthracene resulted in the gelation of some specific organic solvents. The driving force behind the gel formation resulted from the charge-transfer (CT) interaction between the electron rich anthracene and electron deficient fluorenone. Figure 1. Chemical structures of 2,3-bis(bile acid)anthracenes and TNF (centre), a scanning electronic microscopy image of xerogels prepared from bis(deoxycholyl)anthracene and TNF (left) and a photograph of the gel of bis(deoxycholyl)anthracene and TNF in n-octanol. Thermochromic property (during sol to gel phase transition), absorption and variable temperature fluorescence measurements supported CT interaction. Thermal stability studies and dynamic rheology experiments confirmed that CT gels were thermally most stable and mechanically stronger with equi-molar amounts of the two components. Stiffness values obtained from rheological experiments also suggested that the gels were viscoelastic solids. Chapter 3(A): Tb(III) sensitization in an organogel matrix: Selective luminescence quenching by an aromatic nitro derivative In this chapter the discovery of metallo organogel formation by mixing methanolic solutions of Tb(OAc)3 and sodium deoxycholate (NaDCh) has been explored. Sensitization of Tb3+ was observed by doping micromolar quantities of 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN). Mechanical properties of Tb3+-DCh gels were investigated by rheology at three different ratios of Tb3+ and DCh. It was observed that increasing in the Tb3+ to DCh ratio increased the mechanical property of the gels. Time delayed emission spectra were recorded with increasing concentration of DHN and luminescence increase was noticed in a linear fashion. Importance of gel matrix was demonstrated by measuring the Tb3+ luminescence at fixed concentration (5 mM) with/without DHN in the solution and gel media. Figure 2:: Schematic representation of Tb3+ sensitization by DHN. Photograph (right)) of the Tb3++-DCh (5/15 mM) gels with (a) 50 µM DHHN (b) No DHHN under UVV (365 nm). Sensitization by an electron rich chromophore created interest in us to dope relatively electron deficient compounds into the gel matrix for possible quenching off Tb3+-luminescence. Among the electron deficient analytes screened included 1,5-difluro-2,4-diinitrobenzenne (DFDNB)), 2,4 dinitrophenol (DNPPh), p-nitrobenzaldehydde (p-NB), 2,4,6-trinitrootoluene (TTNT) and 22,4,7¬trinitrofluuorenone (TTNF). Microscopy studies such as AFM, TEMM and SEMM revealed highly entangled fibrous network in the morphology of Tb3+--DCh xerogel. Solid state luminescence experiments suggested that sensiitization was observed in the xerogels and extent of sensitization was comparable to that of the gel state. Xerogel soaking studies inferred the strong adherence of the DHNN to the gel fibres. Chapter 3(B): Anion dependent structural, morphological and mechanical features of Ln(III)-Cholate gels In this chapter the counter anion influence on various aspects of hydrogels has been discussed. It has been reported from our laboratory that mixing of aqueous solutions of sodium cholate (15 mM) and various lanthanide acetates (5 mM) followed by sonication resulted in either transparent or transluscent gels. Unsurprisingly we found that aqueous solutions of lanthanide nitrates and lanthanide chlorides also formed hydrogels upon mixing with sodium cholate (Figure 33). Dried films of Tb3++-cholate and Eu3+-cholate gels prepared from their respective nitrate salts displayed birefringent structures under polarizing optical microscopy (POM). But no significant textures of any type were observed in the case of gels prepared from either chloride or acetate salts. Figure 3:: Photographs of the hydrogels prepared by mixing of aqueous solutions of various salts Tb33+ and Eu3+ with sodium cholate solutions. Scanning electron microscopic images exhibited fibrous structures for all the xerogels in the morphology. Atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy measurements revealed helical morphology for xerogels prepared from nitrate salts where as flat tape-like cross linkage was observed for chloride or acetate based xerogels. Anion effect on mechanical properties was significant in the sense that gels prepared from acetate salts displayed highest mechanical strength followed by nitrate based gels which were stronger than that of chloride based gels. Titration of sodium cholate solution with various lanthanide salt solutions gave the direct evidence of thee pH variation as a function of the anions. Figure 4: TEM images of xerogels prepared from gels of nitrate salts of Tb3+ (left) and Eu3+ (right) Chapter 4: Design, synthesis a nd study of bile acid ‘click’ conjugates of perylene bisimides (PBIs) and naphthalene bisimides (NBIs) In this chapter the synthesis of novel bile acid derivatives of perylene and naphthalene bisimides is discussed. The ‘click’ chemistry procedure was used to link bile acid groups on to the chromophores. Azide derivatives of PBIs and NBIs were prepared inn 3 step methods which were coupled to propargyl esters of bile acids by following standard ‘click chemistry’ protocols to achieve the target molecules (Scheme 3). Scheme 3 The studies conducted mainly focused on Cholic acid (CA) conjugates of PBIs and NBIs. Steady state absorption and emission studies of CA conjugates were performed in 10% MeOH/DCM system. POM and fluorescence images showed red emissive aggregates in case of PBI films. TEM measurements revealed uniform aggregate sizes for both the films of PBI(CA)2 and NBI(CA)2. SEM and AFM (Fig 5) studies exhibited spherical aggregates of diameter around 100-200 nm for PBI(CA)2 films where as aggregates of diameter around 500-700 nm were observed for NBI(CA)2 films. Figure 5: AFM images and their corresponding height profiles of PBI films (left) and NBI films (right)

Chapter 1. General Introduction This chapter gives an introduction to supramolecular organo/hydrogels and the related bile acid chemistry touching upon the gelation properties of the bile acid derivatives. Diverse applications of the supramolecular gels are illustrated with several examples. In the concluding section of this chapter, a brief introduction on the semiconductor nanocrystals is provided. Finally, the content of the thesis is outlined. Chapter 2. Bile Acid Derived Novel Organo/hydrogelators Part 1. Bile Acid Derived Organo/hydrogelators With a Basic Side Chain Cationic analogues of bile acids which showed remarkable gelation properties in water were reported from our laboratory. This led us to investigate the aggregation behaviour of some of the lithocholic and deoxycholic acid derivatives having a basic side-chain. Figure 1. Bile acid based organo/hydrogelators containing a basic side-chain. In this part, an organogelator 1 and a hydrogelator 2 derived from parent bile acids have been described with respect to their gelation properties, morphology, thermal and mechanical stability of the gels. The organo/hydrogels were shown to be responsive to acid-base stimuli as the organogel formed only in the protonated state and the hydrogel formed in the neutral form of the tertiary amines. The xerogel fibres obtained from the organogel were found to be solid-like and stable up to 200 oC as confirmed by variable temperature polarizing optical microscopy. The non-fluorescent organogel was doped with a fluorescent dye (coumarin 153) to design a novel dye-organogel composite material which was investigated with laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy showing the dye molecules were uniformly deposited on the organogel fibres. Part 2. Serendipitous Organogelation by Dimeric Bile Acid Esters This section highlights our work on the organogelators based on a number of dimeric esters consisting of different bile acid units. Figure 2. The three different dimeric bile acid esters as organogelators. In this part, three bile acid derived dimeric esters (1, 2 and 3) were shown to possess organogelation properties in aromatic and halogenated aromatic solvents. We studied the morphological features and rheological properties of these organogels. Next, the organogel matrix was exploited to generate and stabilize gold nanoparticles and prepare AuNP/gel hybrid material. Chapter 3. Cholate Hydrogels and Soft Gel-nanoparticle Hybrid Materials Sodium cholate does not form gel in water under any condition as compared to other sodium salts of other bile acids such as sodium deoxycholate and lithocholate which show pH-dependent gelation behaviour. Figure 3. Metal cholate hydrogels derived from sodium cholate and a variety of metal ions. In this chapter, super hydrogelation of sodium cholate induced by a variety of metal ions (Ca2+, Cu2+, Co2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Hg2+ and Ag+) is highlighted with respect to their morphology and mechanical strength/stability. The calcium cholate supramolecular system showed the presence of helically twisted nanofibres which were utilised in the synthesis of soft hybrid materials containing metal (Au and Ag) and metal sulphide (CdS, ZnS, HgS, etc.) nanoparticles. Chapter 4. Cadmium Deoxycholate and Highly Luminescent CdSe Nanocrystals Bile acid derivatives have very high chemical and thermal stability owing to the presence of a rigid steroidal nucleus. We explored the possibility of utilizing the bile salt derived from Cd as a metal complexes as precursor to high quality nanocrystals (NCs) which can only be accessed at high temperatures (>200 oC). Figure 4. Synthesis of high quality CdSe NCs from cadmium deoxycholate. In this chapter, the synthesis of high quality CdSe nanocrystals is discussed using a novel bile acid based precursor: cadmium salt of 7-deoxycholic acid, which has high thermal stability and can be conveniently used at very high temperatures (>300 oC) required for the synthesis of high quality nanocrystals. Syntheses were done both by ‘injection’ and ‘non-injection’ modes. The as-prepared nanocrystals have high photoluminescence quantum yield, multiple excitons, narrow size-distributions and zinc blende/wurtzite crystalline cores. Appendix. Steroidal Thiols in Design of Novel Quantum dot (QD)/Gel Hybrid Materials Bile acid derived steroidal thiols were reported to be efficient capping agents for silver and gold nanoparticles from our laboratory. So, we wanted to check whether they could stabilize the semiconductor nanocrystals as well. Figure 5. Steroidal thiols as stabilizers of semiconductor quantum dots. In this short report, we describe the efficient capping by bile acid derived thiols of group II-VI semiconductor nanocrystals/quantum dots (QDs) (CdS, CdSe). After synthesizing the thiol capped QDs, we tried to disperse the capped nanoparticles into the gel fibres. The hybrid gels showed the presence of nanoparticles inside the fibres as observed by transmission electron microscopy, although the photoluminescence of the QDs was very low in the gel matrix, which might be due to the inefficient surface passivation of the nanoparticles in the gel.