As espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO) afetam significativamente a homeostase redox celular. No entanto, o peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), uma das ERO mais estudadas, é considerado regulador chave em uma série de processos fisiológicos, dependendo de sua concentração na célula: em baixas concentrações atua como molécula sinalizadora envolvida na aclimatação da planta a estresses, desencadeando tolerância a estresses bióticos e abióticos; por outro lado, em altas concentrações o H2O2 pode levar à morte celular. Gradientes de ERO e fitohormônios têm influência nas respostas de crescimento local e consecutivamente afetam o estado redox celular. Diversos fitohormônios afetam a sinalização redox celular controlando processos de crescimento e defesa. Os níveis de H2O2 intracelulares são controlados pela ação de diversas enzimas da classe das peroxidases e catalases. Dentre as peroxidases, a família de proteínas GPX pode ser encontrada em praticamente todos os reinos e vem sendo cada vez mais estudada em plantas. Em arroz, essa família é composta de cinco genes, enquanto em Arabidopsis foram identificados oito genes. Este trabalho teve como objetivo caracterizar funcionalmente as GPX mitocondriais e cloroplastídica de arroz e sete dos oito genes de Arabidopsis thaliana. Mutantes knockout de Arabidopsis para os genes AtGPX1, AtGPX2, AtGPX3, AtGPX4, AtGPX6, AtGPX7 e AtGPX8 foram obtidos.Nesta espécie, pelo menos AtGPX2, AtGPX3 e AtGPX6 são necessárias para a correta formação da arquitetura da raiz dependente dos hormônios ABA, auxina e SL. O sileciamento por RNAi em arroz para os genes OsGPX1, OsGPX3 e OsGPX4 gerou plantas com crescimento deficiente de raiz, parte área e formação de panículas. A redução em 80% da expressão gênica da isoforma cloroplastídica (OsGPX4) foi letal para o desenvolvimento de plântulas regeneradas a partir de calos de arroz, enquanto que a redução da expressão de 40% e 95% de OsGPX1 (GPX1s) e OsGPX3 (GPX3s), respectivamente, não impediu a regeneração de plantas. No entanto, plantas GPX1s apresentaram menor tamanho, menor número de panículas e menor produção de sementes em comparação com as plantas NT (não transformadas). Adicionalmente, plantas GPX3s apresentaram redução do comprimento tanto da parte aérea quanto das raízes, além de acúmulo de H2O2 cerca de vinte vezes maior do que a planta NT. Neste trabalho, foi demonstrada a participação das enzimas GPX durante o desenvolvimento vegetativo e reprodutivo de plantas de arroz e o estabelecimento da arquitetura da raiz dependente de hormônios em Arabidopsis. O conjunto de dados obtidos contribuempara o entendimento do papel dessas enzimas na homeostase redox, como também na interação com fitohormônios nos processos de desenvolvimento e defesa vegetais. / Reactive oxygen species (ROS) affect significantly cellular redox homeostasis. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), one of the most studied ROS, is considered a key regulator in a number of physiological processes dependent of its concentration in the cell: at low concentrations acts as a signaling molecule involved in plant acclimation to stress, triggering tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses; on the other hand, at high concentrations can promote cell death. Gradients of ROS and phytohormones can influence the responses of local growth and consecutively can affect the cellular redox state. Several phytohormones affect redox signaling processes controlling cell growth and defense. The intracellular levels of H2O2 are controlled by the action of several enzymes like peroxidases and catalases. Among the peroxidases, the GPX family of proteins can be found in virtually all kingdoms and is being increasingly studied in plants. In rice, this family consists of five genes, while in Arabidopsis eight genes were identified. This study aimed to characterize functionally rice and Arabidopsis GPX genes. Arabidopsis thaliana nockout mutants for AtGPX1, AtGPX2, AtGPX3, AtGPX4, AtGPX6, and AtGPX7 AtGPX8 genes were obtained. In Arabidopsis, at least AtGPX2, AtGPX3 and AtGPX6 are necessary to hormone-dependent control of root achitecture formation. RNAi knockdown in rice of OsGPX1, and OsGPX3 OsGPX4 generated plants with shorter root and shoot lengths, and deficient panicle formation. An 80% gene expression reduction of the chloroplastic isoform (OsGPX4) was lethal, and impaired the regeneration of plants from rice calli, whereas the reduction of expression in 40% and 95% of OsGPX1 (GPX1s) and OsGPX3 (GPX3s), respectively, did not prevent plant regeneration. However, GPX1s plants were smaller and had fewer panicles and seed compared to NT (non-transformed) plants. Additionally, GPX3s plants showed reduced length of the shoot as roots and accumulation of H2O2 about twenty times greater than the plant NT. GPX participation during vegetative and reproductive development of rice plants and the hormone-dependent root arquitecture formation in Arabidopsis was demonstrated in this work. The data set obtained contributed to the understanding of the role of these enzymes in the redox homeostasis, as well as how the interaction with phytohormones in development processes and plant defense occurs.

As espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO) afetam significativamente a homeostase redox celular. No entanto, o peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), uma das ERO mais estudadas, é considerado regulador chave em uma série de processos fisiológicos, dependendo de sua concentração na célula: em baixas concentrações atua como molécula sinalizadora envolvida na aclimatação da planta a estresses, desencadeando tolerância a estresses bióticos e abióticos; por outro lado, em altas concentrações o H2O2 pode levar à morte celular. Gradientes de ERO e fitohormônios têm influência nas respostas de crescimento local e consecutivamente afetam o estado redox celular. Diversos fitohormônios afetam a sinalização redox celular controlando processos de crescimento e defesa. Os níveis de H2O2 intracelulares são controlados pela ação de diversas enzimas da classe das peroxidases e catalases. Dentre as peroxidases, a família de proteínas GPX pode ser encontrada em praticamente todos os reinos e vem sendo cada vez mais estudada em plantas. Em arroz, essa família é composta de cinco genes, enquanto em Arabidopsis foram identificados oito genes. Este trabalho teve como objetivo caracterizar funcionalmente as GPX mitocondriais e cloroplastídica de arroz e sete dos oito genes de Arabidopsis thaliana. Mutantes knockout de Arabidopsis para os genes AtGPX1, AtGPX2, AtGPX3, AtGPX4, AtGPX6, AtGPX7 e AtGPX8 foram obtidos.Nesta espécie, pelo menos AtGPX2, AtGPX3 e AtGPX6 são necessárias para a correta formação da arquitetura da raiz dependente dos hormônios ABA, auxina e SL. O sileciamento por RNAi em arroz para os genes OsGPX1, OsGPX3 e OsGPX4 gerou plantas com crescimento deficiente de raiz, parte área e formação de panículas. A redução em 80% da expressão gênica da isoforma cloroplastídica (OsGPX4) foi letal para o desenvolvimento de plântulas regeneradas a partir de calos de arroz, enquanto que a redução da expressão de 40% e 95% de OsGPX1 (GPX1s) e OsGPX3 (GPX3s), respectivamente, não impediu a regeneração de plantas. No entanto, plantas GPX1s apresentaram menor tamanho, menor número de panículas e menor produção de sementes em comparação com as plantas NT (não transformadas). Adicionalmente, plantas GPX3s apresentaram redução do comprimento tanto da parte aérea quanto das raízes, além de acúmulo de H2O2 cerca de vinte vezes maior do que a planta NT. Neste trabalho, foi demonstrada a participação das enzimas GPX durante o desenvolvimento vegetativo e reprodutivo de plantas de arroz e o estabelecimento da arquitetura da raiz dependente de hormônios em Arabidopsis. O conjunto de dados obtidos contribuempara o entendimento do papel dessas enzimas na homeostase redox, como também na interação com fitohormônios nos processos de desenvolvimento e defesa vegetais. / Reactive oxygen species (ROS) affect significantly cellular redox homeostasis. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), one of the most studied ROS, is considered a key regulator in a number of physiological processes dependent of its concentration in the cell: at low concentrations acts as a signaling molecule involved in plant acclimation to stress, triggering tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses; on the other hand, at high concentrations can promote cell death. Gradients of ROS and phytohormones can influence the responses of local growth and consecutively can affect the cellular redox state. Several phytohormones affect redox signaling processes controlling cell growth and defense. The intracellular levels of H2O2 are controlled by the action of several enzymes like peroxidases and catalases. Among the peroxidases, the GPX family of proteins can be found in virtually all kingdoms and is being increasingly studied in plants. In rice, this family consists of five genes, while in Arabidopsis eight genes were identified. This study aimed to characterize functionally rice and Arabidopsis GPX genes. Arabidopsis thaliana nockout mutants for AtGPX1, AtGPX2, AtGPX3, AtGPX4, AtGPX6, and AtGPX7 AtGPX8 genes were obtained. In Arabidopsis, at least AtGPX2, AtGPX3 and AtGPX6 are necessary to hormone-dependent control of root achitecture formation. RNAi knockdown in rice of OsGPX1, and OsGPX3 OsGPX4 generated plants with shorter root and shoot lengths, and deficient panicle formation. An 80% gene expression reduction of the chloroplastic isoform (OsGPX4) was lethal, and impaired the regeneration of plants from rice calli, whereas the reduction of expression in 40% and 95% of OsGPX1 (GPX1s) and OsGPX3 (GPX3s), respectively, did not prevent plant regeneration. However, GPX1s plants were smaller and had fewer panicles and seed compared to NT (non-transformed) plants. Additionally, GPX3s plants showed reduced length of the shoot as roots and accumulation of H2O2 about twenty times greater than the plant NT. GPX participation during vegetative and reproductive development of rice plants and the hormone-dependent root arquitecture formation in Arabidopsis was demonstrated in this work. The data set obtained contributed to the understanding of the role of these enzymes in the redox homeostasis, as well as how the interaction with phytohormones in development processes and plant defense occurs.

Devido ao constante ataque à camada de ozônio, as plantas, nos próximos anos, terão que lidar cada vez mais com uma maior quantidade de luz UV atingindo a atmosfera terrestre. O arroz é considerado uma planta modelo para as monocotiledôneas por possuir um genoma relativamente pequeno (aproximadamente 390 Mb) e devido a sua grande sintenia com outros cereais. Recentemente, as proteínas E2F foram descritas, especialmente em vertebrados, como fatores transcricionais que podem estar envolvidos com a resposta ao dano de DNA. Tendo como objetivo principal estudar como a família de fatores transcricionais E2F responde ao dano genotóxico em arroz, experimentos com luz UV-B foram conduzidos para avaliar o envolvimento destes com as respostas ao dano de DNA. Além disso, foram realizadas análises filogenéticas dessa família gênica com representantes de plantas. Em arroz, estudos prévios de nosso grupo identificaram seis genes pertencentes à família E2F, sendo quatro E2F típicos e dois E2F atípicos. Em resposta à luz UV, dois dos quatro genes que codificam E2F típicos e os dois genes de E2F atípicos, tiveram a expressão relativa aumentada após o estresse em relação a plantas mantidas em condição controle. Nesse experimento, além dos genes E2F e dos genes de reparo, também foram avaliados os níveis de transcritos de genes sabidamente envolvidos com ciclo celular e apoptose, permitindo-se verificar se o aumento de expressão dos genes E2F em resposta ao estresse está efetivamente relacionado com a resposta a danos no DNA e não a estes dois outros processos celulares. As análises filogenéticas revelaram que um desses dois E2F típicos, que apresentou sua expressão diferencial nas condições testadas, provavelmente atue como um repressor de transcrição. Esta afirmação está baseada em estudos comparativos com sequências da planta modelo para as dicotiledôneas, Arabidopsis thaliana. O conjunto de resultados obtidos sugere que alguns membros da família E2F de arroz estão envolvidos especificamente com as repostas ao dano ao DNA, além de permitir a proposição de um possível mecanismo de ação. / Due to the constant attack to the ozone layer, the plants, in the coming years, will have to deal with an increasing amount of UV light reaching the earth's atmosphere. Rice is considered a model plant for monocots due to its relatively small genome (approximately 390 Mb) and because its high synteny with other cereals. E2F proteins have recently been reported, especially in vertebrates, as transcriptional factors involved in the response to DNA damage. To study how the family of transcription factors E2F responds to genotoxic damage in rice, experiments with UV-B were conducted to evaluate their involvement with the responses to DNA damage. In addition, phylogenetic analyzes of this gene family in plants were performed. In rice, previous studies of our group identified six genes belonging to the E2F family, four typical and two atypical E2F. In response to UV light, two of four genes encoding typical E2F and the two atypical E2F genes increased their relative expression after stress compared to the plants grown in the control condition. In this experiment, in addition to the E2F gene and repair genes, we have also analyzed the transcriptional level of genes known to be involved with cell cycle and apoptosis, in order to verify if the increases in E2F gene expression, in response to stress, are actually related to the response to DNA damage, rather than to other two cellular processes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that one of these two typical E2F, which showed differential expression under the conditions tested, probably acts as a transcriptional repressor. This analysis is based on comparisons with sequences from the model plant for dicots, Arabidopsis thaliana. These set of results suggest that some members of the E2F family of rice are involved specifically with responses to DNA damage and allowed the proposition of a possible mechanism of action.

Devido ao constante ataque à camada de ozônio, as plantas, nos próximos anos, terão que lidar cada vez mais com uma maior quantidade de luz UV atingindo a atmosfera terrestre. O arroz é considerado uma planta modelo para as monocotiledôneas por possuir um genoma relativamente pequeno (aproximadamente 390 Mb) e devido a sua grande sintenia com outros cereais. Recentemente, as proteínas E2F foram descritas, especialmente em vertebrados, como fatores transcricionais que podem estar envolvidos com a resposta ao dano de DNA. Tendo como objetivo principal estudar como a família de fatores transcricionais E2F responde ao dano genotóxico em arroz, experimentos com luz UV-B foram conduzidos para avaliar o envolvimento destes com as respostas ao dano de DNA. Além disso, foram realizadas análises filogenéticas dessa família gênica com representantes de plantas. Em arroz, estudos prévios de nosso grupo identificaram seis genes pertencentes à família E2F, sendo quatro E2F típicos e dois E2F atípicos. Em resposta à luz UV, dois dos quatro genes que codificam E2F típicos e os dois genes de E2F atípicos, tiveram a expressão relativa aumentada após o estresse em relação a plantas mantidas em condição controle. Nesse experimento, além dos genes E2F e dos genes de reparo, também foram avaliados os níveis de transcritos de genes sabidamente envolvidos com ciclo celular e apoptose, permitindo-se verificar se o aumento de expressão dos genes E2F em resposta ao estresse está efetivamente relacionado com a resposta a danos no DNA e não a estes dois outros processos celulares. As análises filogenéticas revelaram que um desses dois E2F típicos, que apresentou sua expressão diferencial nas condições testadas, provavelmente atue como um repressor de transcrição. Esta afirmação está baseada em estudos comparativos com sequências da planta modelo para as dicotiledôneas, Arabidopsis thaliana. O conjunto de resultados obtidos sugere que alguns membros da família E2F de arroz estão envolvidos especificamente com as repostas ao dano ao DNA, além de permitir a proposição de um possível mecanismo de ação. / Due to the constant attack to the ozone layer, the plants, in the coming years, will have to deal with an increasing amount of UV light reaching the earth's atmosphere. Rice is considered a model plant for monocots due to its relatively small genome (approximately 390 Mb) and because its high synteny with other cereals. E2F proteins have recently been reported, especially in vertebrates, as transcriptional factors involved in the response to DNA damage. To study how the family of transcription factors E2F responds to genotoxic damage in rice, experiments with UV-B were conducted to evaluate their involvement with the responses to DNA damage. In addition, phylogenetic analyzes of this gene family in plants were performed. In rice, previous studies of our group identified six genes belonging to the E2F family, four typical and two atypical E2F. In response to UV light, two of four genes encoding typical E2F and the two atypical E2F genes increased their relative expression after stress compared to the plants grown in the control condition. In this experiment, in addition to the E2F gene and repair genes, we have also analyzed the transcriptional level of genes known to be involved with cell cycle and apoptosis, in order to verify if the increases in E2F gene expression, in response to stress, are actually related to the response to DNA damage, rather than to other two cellular processes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that one of these two typical E2F, which showed differential expression under the conditions tested, probably acts as a transcriptional repressor. This analysis is based on comparisons with sequences from the model plant for dicots, Arabidopsis thaliana. These set of results suggest that some members of the E2F family of rice are involved specifically with responses to DNA damage and allowed the proposition of a possible mechanism of action.

Memoria para optar al título profesional de Ingeniero Agrónomo / Chile necesita variedades de arroz (Oryza sativa L.) que se adapten mejor a las condiciones de clima, suelo y manejo del país, como por ejemplo variedades de ciclo más corto y de alto rendimiento que las existentes. En este sentido, la empresa Maqsarroz introdujo en Chile una nueva variedad de arroz, Sandora, proveniente de Hungría. En esta memoria se estudió el efecto de la fecha de siembra, la dosis de nitrógeno y de semilla en las variables biomasa, rendimiento, peso 1.000 granos, granos por metro cuadrado, panículas por metro cuadrado, granos por panícula y porcentaje de granos llenos. Se utilizó un diseño estadístico de parcelas divididas en bloques completamente aleatorizados, la parcela principal fue la fecha de siembra, la sub-parcela la dosis de nitrógeno y la dosis de semilla ocupó la sub-sub-parcela. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que una combinación correcta de fecha de siembra y dosis de nitrógeno permite alcanzar los mayores rendimientos. Una siembra temprana fertilizada con 100 kg N ha-1 obtuvo el mayor rendimiento, 9.3 Mg ha-1, lo que contrasta con una siembra tardía que también fue fertilizada con 100 kg N ha-1, pero en la que se obtuvo un rendimiento de 6,2 Mg ha-1. En lo que respecta a la dosis de semilla, independiente de las dosis utilizadas, cuando se complementó con 100 kg N ha-1 en todos los casos se obtuvieron rendimientos entre 7,3 y 7,8 Mg ha-1.

Cadmium (Cd) is one of the major contaminants in agricultural soil, threatening agricultural production and human health. The objectives of this research work were to understand the tolerance mechanism in rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotype with more Cd-tolerance, and the relation between changes of peroxidases activities and peroxidase gene expression profiles after Cd-treated. For more, we analysis about cis-acting elements in the rice peroxidase genes promoter sequences region, gene structure of rice peroxidase genes and phylogenic relation among 9 peroxidase genes which were blasted from 6 Arabidopsis thaliana Cd-induced based on the peroxidase genes protein sequences. We used 9 upland and 32 varieties rice seeds as materials for germination and the growth of seedlings test with 50 or 500 £gM CdCl2 application, respectively. Rice seeds germination is a complex physiological and biochemical process, and is highly affected by cadmium. The results showed that Cd inhibited both the growth of radicles and coleoptiles. At germination stage, Cd highly inhibited the growth of upland rice. Among these rice varieties, Japonica type cultivars are more tolerant to Cd, but Indica type are more sensitive to Cd. Upland rice cultivars are the most sensitive to Cd. At seedling stage, Cd highly inhibited the growth of roots, but slightly inhibited the growth of shoots. To cope with Cd-induced stresses, plants adopt different strategies and posses a variety of defense mechanisms to prevent themselves from Cd damage. Peroxidase (POXs) is an important antioxidative enzyme for defense responses against Cd oxidative stress. The results suggested that different rice variety has a specific peroxidase gene expression pattern by the pI focusing electrophoresis after Cd-treated, and the peroxidase activities are significant differences when these rice varieties faced Cd stress. In this study, we searched the rice databases (japonica type) and cloned the promoter sequences of the indica type of the rice peroxidase genes, pI 4.5 POX and pI 5.1 POX genes. According to the search results about cis-acting elements from PLACE and PlantCARE databases, these cis-acting elements can be divided into three classes, showing as follow¡G1. Transcriptional related; 2. Light regulated related, and 3. Plant hormones- and stress-related. Based on all reported cis-acting elements, there are many types of transcription factors (TFs) involved in regulation of rice pI 4.5 POX and pI 5.1 POX genes expression. These TFs, which can recognize the specific cis-acting elements to regulate the gene expression, and will be induced by stresses and defense-related plant hormones. We found a cis-acting element (CURECORECR) which response to copper in both rice peroxidase genes promoter regions. There is a number of difference between Japonica type and Indica type peroxidase genes, japonica type peroxidase has more cis-acting elements than indica type. Plant class III peroxidases are present in all land plants. All land plant peroxidase genes are with the same putative ancestor of peroxidase genes and are orthologous genes, but they have specific functions of individual perxidase genes owing to their promoter sequences are very divergent. We used 6 Arabidopsis Cd-related peroxidases protein sequences as a starting point for rice peroxidase datas mining. We found 9 rice peroxidase genes have a closely relation among them. For more details about these rice peroxidase genes, searching each one of these rice peroxidases its gene structure on the Rice Genome Annotation Project (RGAP), comparison and their relation. The expressions of these peroxidase genes are very different among them after Cd treatment, and we also found the same cis-acting element (CURECORECR) which response to copper in all 9 rice peroxidase genes promoter regions. There is a number of difference among them.

Cd significantly inhibited the growth of both rice cultivars. The Tainung 67 cultivar is more tolerant to Cd than Taichung 1 cultivar after 48 h incubation in CdCl2 solution. The Cd tolerant cultivar¡XTainung 67¡¦s PODs in roots might synthesize more lignin in Cd-treatments. Meanwhile, the decrease of H2O2 levels is accompanied with the enhancement of POD activity in Cd-treated tissues. PODs here might also remove excess H2O2, thus serving detoxifying role and synthesizing more lignin for protection. In Taichung 1 cultivar, the accumulation of H2O2 in Cd-treated tissues could be due to the less amount of POD enhancement induced by Cd. In response to Cd treatment, the Taichung 1 cultivar also synthesizes little lignin, and therefore is Cd-sensitive.

Copper-treated rice seeding (Oryza sativa cv. Tainung 67 and Taichung native 1) showed significant inhibition in rice root growth, and an enhancement in POD activity. POD within Tainung 67 rice roots might synthesize more lignin in Cu-treated tissue. Meanwhile, the decrease of H2O2 levels is accompanied with the enhancement of POD activity in Cu-treated tissues. The increase in POD activity induced by Cu might remove excess hydrogen peroxide serving a detoxifying role and synthesizing more lignin for protection. In Taichung native 1 rice cultivar, high amounts of H2O2 accumulated in Cu-treated tissues could be due to the less amounts of POD induced by Cu. In response to Cu treatment, the Taichung native 1 cultivar also synthesizes a little lignin, and is more Cu-sensitive. Therefore, The Tainung 67 cultivar is more tolerant to Cu than Taichung native 1.

Cadmium-treated rice seeding (Oryza sativa L. cv. Taichung Native 1 and O. sativa L. cv. Tainung 67) showed inhibition in the growth of rice roots or leaves, and an enhancement in POX activity. In Tainung 67 cultivar, Cd treatment may have influence over cis-regulatory elements in POX promoter region and enhanced transcription of POX or enhance glycosylation of POX. The increase in POX activity induced by Cd might remove excess hydrogen peroxide serving a detoxifying role and synthesizing more lignin for protection. In Taichung Native 1 cultivar, high amounts of H2O2 accumulated in Cd-treated tissues could be due to the less amounts of POX induced by Cd. In response to Cd treatment, the Taichung Native 1 cultivar also synthesizes a little lignin, and is more Cd-sensitive. Therefore, the Tainung 67 cultivar is more tolerant to Cd than Taichung Native 1.

Aluminum-treated rice seeding (Oryza sativa L. cv. Taichung Native 1 and O. sativa L. cv. Tainung 67) showed significant inhibition in rice root growth, and an enhancement of POX activity. In Tainung 67 cultivar rice synthesizes more lignin in Al-treated tissue. Meanwhile, the decrease of H2O2 levels is accompanied with the enhancement of POX activity in Al-treated tissue. The increase in POX activity induced by Al might remove excess hydrogen peroxide serving a detoxifying role and synthesizing more lignin for protection. In Taichung native 1 cultivar, high amounts of H2O2 accumulated in Al-treated tissues could be due to the less amounts of POX induced by Al. In response to Al treatment, the Taichung native 1 cultivar synthesizes less lignin in comparison with that of Tainung 67, and is more Al-less tolerant. Therefore, the Tainung 67 cultivar is more tolerant to Al than Taichung native 1.