In the search for alternative energy technologies, low temperature fuel cells continue to feature as technologies with the most promise for mass commercialization. Among the low temperature fuel cells, alkaline and proton exchange membrane fuel cells are the most popular. Alkaline fuel cells have typically been used for water generation as well as auxiliary power for space shuttles. Their bulkiness however makes them undesirable for other applications, especially in automobiles, where there is a great demand for alternative technologies to internal combustion engines. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells on the other hand possess numerous qualities including their compact size, high efficiency and versatility. Their mass implementation has however been delayed, because of cost among other reasons. Most of this cost is owed to the Pt/C catalyst that accounts for about half of the price of the PEM Fuel Cell. This catalyst is used to drive the sluggish oxygen reduction reaction that occurs at the cathode of the PEM Fuel Cell. To overcome this obstacle, which is to make PEM Fuel Cell technology more affordable, reducing the amount Pt has traditionally been the approach. Another approach has been to find new ideal catalyst-support combinations that increase the intrinsic activity of the supported material. One more strategy has been to find lower cost alternative materials to Pt through synthetic and kinetic manipulations to rival or exceed the current oxygen reduction reaction activity benchmark. To this end, Palladium has garnered significant interest as a monometallic entity. Its manipulation through synthetic chemistry to achieve different morphologies - which favor select lattice planes - in turn promotes the oxygen reduction reaction to different degrees. In bimetallic or, in more recent times multimetallic frameworks, geometric and ligand effects can be used to form ideal compositions and morphologies that are synergistic for improved oxygen reduction reaction kinetics. In this dissertation, we have explored three different approaches to make contributions to the catalysis and electrocatalysis body of literature. In the first instance, we look at the influence of ligand effects through the active incorporation of a PVP capping agent on the stability of ~3nm Pt NPs. Washed (no capping agent) and unwashed (with capping agent) batches of NPs were evaluated via cyclic voltammogram analyses to evaluate differences there might be between them. It was found that the current density measurements for unwashed particle batches were higher. This increase in current density was attributed to the monodentate and bidentate ligand bonding from the PVP, which increased as a function of cycle number and plateaued when the PVP was completely decomposed. The complete decomposition of PVP during the CV experiment was estimated to occur around 200 cycles. The remaining portion of the dissertation explores the electrocatalytic properties of Palladium based NPs. The first instance, a monometallic study of Palladium cubes and dendrites was aimed at building on a recent publication on the enhanced ORR activity that was achieved with a PdPt bimetallic dendrite morphology. In our work, we sought to isolate the dendritic morphology properties of the monometallic Pd composition in order to understand what advantages could be achieved via this morphology. Pd cubes were used as a comparison, since they could be generated through the combination of a similar set of reagents simply by switching the order of addition. It was found that while there was no significant variation in the ORR activity as a function of morphology / shape, there was an interesting interaction between hydrogen and the palladium NPs in the hydrogen oxidation region that varied as a function of shape. This led to further sorption and ethylene hydrogenation studies, which suggested that, the interaction between hydrogen and Pd depended on the environment. Within the electrochemical environment, the ECSA measured, suggested that hydrogen was being reversibly absorbed into the sub-surface octahedral sites of Pd. The higher ECSA for Pd cubes corroborated with higher sorption for Pd cubes as well. However ethylene hydrogenation showed that the fringes of the Pd dendrites provided additional sites for reaction, which in turn translated to higher conversion. Furthermore, through a Koutecky-Levich analysis, it was found out that the Pd dendrites while exhibiting slightly lower activity, favored the 4-electron oxygen reduction process more than the Pd cubes. In the last part of this dissertation we explored the electrocatalytic properties of Pd-based bimetallic NPs under different morphologies including nanocages and sub-10nm alloys. With the inclusion of Ag, it was found out, through Koutecky-Levich analysis that the 4-electron process was better observed under alkaline conditions using a 0.1M NaOH(aq) electrolyte solution instead of a 0.1M HClO4 (aq) for acidic media testing. It was found that, for PdAg nanocage morphologies, where the Pd galvanically replaced the Ag to form cages, the four-electron process was suited to thinner Pd shells. Indeed the average electron numbers measured for Ag nanocubes coated with a 6nm shell was in agreement, within reason of literature values for bulk Ag. However, since the binding energy that both metals have for OH is so close, the potential for contributions to the ORR kinetics in alkaline media by Pd is a potential consideration.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) are two types of low-temperature fuel cells (LTFCs) that operate at temperatures less than 100 °C and are appealing for portable, transportation, and stationary applications. However, commercialization has been hampered by several problems such as cost, efficiency, and durability. New electrocatalysts must be developed that have higher oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity, lower precious metal loadings, and improved durability to become commercially viable. This dissertation investigates the development and use of new electrocatalysts for the ORR. Core-shell (shell@core) Pt@Pd[subscript x]Cu[subscript y]/C electrocatalysts, with a range of initial compositions, were synthesized to result in a Pt-rich shell atop a Pd[subscript x]C[subscript y]-rich core. The interaction between core and shell resulted in a delay in the onset of Pt-OH formation, accounting in a 3.5-fold increase in Pt-mass activity compared to Pt/C. The methanol tolerance of the core-shell Pt@PdCu₅/C was found to decrease with increasing Pt-shell coverage due to the negative potential shift in the CO oxidation peak. It was discovered that Cu leached out from the cathode has a detrimental effect on membrane-electrode assembly performance. A spray-assisted impregnation method was developed to reduce particle size and increase dispersion on the support in a consistent manner for a Pd₈₈W₁₂/C electrocatalyst. The spray-assisted method resulted in decreased particle size, improved dispersion and more uniform drying compared to a conventional method. These differences resulted in greater performance during operation of a single DMFC and PEMFC. Additionally, Pd₈₈W₁₂/C prepared by spray-assisted impregnation showed DMFC performance similar to Pt/C with similar particle size in the kinetic region while offering improved methanol tolerance. Pd₈₈W₁₂/C also showed comparable maximum power densities and activities normalized by cost in a PEMFC. Lastly, the activation of aluminum as an effective reducing agent for the wet- chemical synthesis of metallic particles by pitting corrosion was explored along with the control of particle morphology. It was found that atomic hydrogen, an intermediate, was the actual reducing agent, and a wide array of metals could be produced. The particle size and dispersion of Pd/C produced using Al was controlled using PVP and FeCl₂ as stabilizers. The intermetallic Cu₂Sb was similarly prepared with a 20 nm crystallite size for potential use in lithium-ion battery anodes. Lastly, it was found that the shape of Pd produced with Al as a reducing agent could be controlled to prepare 10 nm cubes enclosed by (100) facets with potentially high activity for the ORR. / text

This dissertation discusses the influence of nitrogen doping (N-doping) on the electronic and catalytic properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). These properties have been studied using a variety of techniques, in order to both qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the relationship between the nitrogen concentration and observed properties. Chapter 1 provides a general overview of CNTs and N-doping and details some of the previous research from our group. Chapter 2 discusses the assembly and characterization of free-standing electrode mats, which are used in order to understand the intrinsic physicochemical properties of the material without relying on the secondary influence of another conductive support. Raman microscopy, X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning and scanning-tunneling electron microscopy, as well as electrochemical methods were all used to demonstrate the viability of the mat electrodes for further experiments. Chapter 3 addresses the examination of a range of nitrogen concentrations in order to better understand the effects of nitrogen concentration on the electrochemical and electrical properties such as the differential capacitance, density of states at the Fermi level (D(E[subscript F])), bulk conductivity and work function. These properties were studied using a variety of techniques, including UV-photoelectron spectroscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and conductive four point probe. Chapter 4 investigates the inherent catalysis of the nitrogen doped CNTs (N-CNTs) with respect to O2 reduction, and a complex mechanism is proposed. Electrochemical methods such as cyclic and linear sweep voltammetries as well as thermo-gravimetric analysis and gasometric analysis were all employed to determine heterogeneous decomposition rates as well as to detect intermediates of the O₂ reduction reaction. Chapter 5 discusses the electrocatalytic degradation of free cyanide (CN⁻) at the N-CNT mat electrodes. These results both provide further support for the mechanism discussed in Chapter 4, and present the opportunity for a potential application of N-CNTs for environmental purposes. Specifically, spectroscopic and electrochemical methods, in conjunction with theoretical models show both that the presence of CN⁻ does not inhibit O2 reduction, and that it can be effectively converted to cyanate (OCN⁻) at the N-CNT electrodes. Future work involving the assembly and characterization of transparent N-CNT films is discussed in Chapter 6. / text

Organic and inorganic/organic hybrid material development is essential for the advancement of electronic devices, such as organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic thin film transistors (OTFTs) and fuel cells. These materials are superior to their inorganic counterparts due to the ability to create flexible devices that can be produced on a large scale and at relatively low cost. First, electron-transport materials (n-type semiconductors) are severely lacking for the development of sufficient OTFTs. Metal-interrupted perylene analogues have been developed, in part, to take advantage of the ability to tune the electronic properties of these complexes by simply changing the metal center. Second, fluorescent molecules play an essential role in expansion of microscale sensor systems and OLEDs. Solvent dependent triple fluorescence has been discovered for a series of isobutylnaphthalimide derivatives, which is unique for naphthalimide materials which typically demonstrate dual fluorescence. Next, oxygen reduction electrocatalysts in fuel cells have hindered commercialization due to the high price of platinum. Here, polymer-containing palladium nanoparticles utilize the metal center embedded directly in the polymer backbone to serve as a seed point for metal nanoparticle growth. The palladium nanoparticles within the polymer matrix display significant catalytic activity towards oxygen reduction. Also, poly-9,9-dioctylfluorene is at the forefront of blue-light emitting materials for OLEDs due to high quantum efficiencies and good thermal stability; however, a low-energy green band emission contaminant in devices has hindered application. Oligofluorene synthesis to understand this phenomenon can be difficult thus a boronic acid protection has been implemented before Suzuki-Miyaura coupling occurs to reduce the number of byproducts produced and to accomplish synthesis of oligofluorenes such as a pentamer and heptamer. Lastly, while deviating from organic and inorganic/organic electronic materials, a discussion on the development of a mononuclear Rh(II) complexes, specifically a piano-stool conformation which assists in isolation of this species. The piano-stool ligand structure consists of alkyl chains for easy conformational adjustments when the Rh(I) metal center undergoes oxidation, bulky phosphine groups and an electron-donating arene ring to keep the Rh(II) metal center from dimerization. Most importantly, the research conducted has strived toward advancements over a broad range of scientific investigation. / text

Η παρούσα διατριβή αποτελεί κατά ένα μέρος μελέτη του φαινομένου της Ηλεκτροχημικής Τροποποίησης της Καταλυτικής Ενεργότητας, NEMCA βασιζόμενη τόσο στη διερεύνηση της ελεγχόμενης ιοντικής αγωγής του ζεόλιθου με την επιβολή δυναμικού με σκοπό την εφαρμογή του φαινομένου σε διεσπαρμένα συστήματα καταλυτών όσο και στην παρουσία του φαινομένου NEMCA σε υδατικά ηλεκτρολυτικά συστήματα μεταβαλλόμενου pH. Μελετήθηκε επίσης η δυνατότητα βελτίωσης της ηλεκτροχημικής ενεργότητας της καθόδου όπως επίσης και της ανόδου για τις αντιδράσεις της αναγωγής του οξυγόνου και της διάσπασης του νερού αντίστοιχα, σε κυψελίδες καυσίμου πρωτονιακής μεμβράνης χαμηλής θερμοκρασίας. Tο Κεφάλαιο 1 αποτελεί εισαγωγή στις γενικές αρχές της Ηλεκτροχημικής Προώθησης ή Μη Φαραντεϊκής Ηλεκτροχημικής Τροποποίησης της Καταλυτικής Ενεργότητας (φαινόμενο NEMCA) και περιλαμβάνει τον πλήρη κατάλογο όλων των βιβλιογραφικών αναφορών που διερευνούν και τεκμηριώνουν το φαινόμενο. Παράλληλα περιγράφονται οι πειραματικές διατάξεις που χρησιμοποιούνται στην έρευνα της ηλεκτροχημικής ενίσχυσης, αναλύονται οι παράμετροι του φαινομένου καθώς και οι κανόνες που θεμελιώθηκαν με την ταξινόμηση και ανάλυση των πειραματικών αποτελεσμάτων και αποτελούν πρακτικές αρχές ασφαλούς πρόβλεψης της συμπεριφοράς μιας αντίδρασης. Στο Κεφάλαιο 2 περιγράφονται οι βασικές ηλεκτρονιακές παράμετροι μίας στερεής επιφάνειας (μέταλλο ή ημιαγωγός) καθώς και οι θεμελιώδεις ηλεκτρικές και θερμοδυναμικές έννοιες που χαρακτηρίζουν τη διεπιφάνεια ηλεκτροδίου/ηλεκτρολύτη και γενικά τις ηλεκτροδιακές δράσεις. Στο Κεφάλαιο 3 περιγράφονται συνοπτικά οι μέθοδοι χαρακτηρισμού και ανάλυσης καθώς και οι πειραματικές διατάξεις που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν στην παρούσα διατριβή. Στο Κεφάλαιο 4 εξετάζεται ηλεκτροχημικά η ιοντική μετακίνηση Na στο σύστημα Au/NaY σε συνθήκες κενού και σε ατμόσφαιρα οξυγόνου ενώ στη συνέχεια μελετήθηκε το φαινόμενο NEMCA στο σύστημα Pt/NaY κατά την αντίδραση οξείδωσης του CO. Δομικά φαίνεται να υπάρχουν είδη Na ισχυρά δεσμευμένα στο πλέγμα του ζεόλιθου που να μη συμμετέχουν στην ιοντική αγωγιμότητα του υλικού. Αντίθετα η περίσσεια ή τα ασθενώς δεσμευμένα είδη Na δύνανται να μετακινηθούν με την επίδραση ηλεκτρικού πεδίου ώστε να δημιουργηθεί ιοντική αγωγή. Σε ατμόσφαιρα υπερυψηλού κενού και υπό την επίδραση αρνητικής υπέρτασης δεν ευνοείται η ρόφηση ειδών Na στην επιφάνεια του ηλεκτροδίου Au, κάτι που υποδηλώνει την σχεδόν μηδενική ηλεκτροκαταλυτική ενεργότητα της διεπιφάνειας Au|ζεολίθου. Αντίθετα κατά την επίδραση ατμόσφαιρας O2 και υπό αρνητική πόλωση της διεπιφάνειας Au|ζεολίθου, δημιουργείται ροφημένο Na2O στην επιφάνεια του Au. Τούτο σημαίνει ότι η παρουσία ροφημένου οξυγόνου προάγει την αντίδραση μεταφοράς φορτίου Na+ και συνεπώς αυξάνει την ηλεκτροκαταλυτική ενεργότητα στο ηλεκτρόδιο του Au. Η ηλεκτροχημική μελέτη της διεπιφάνειας Pt/NaY ζεολίθου σε κελίο δύο και τριών ηλεκτροδίων έδειξε ότι η επιβολή θετικού δυναμικού στο σύστημα Pt/NaY|Au όταν ο καταλύτης παρουσιάζει ~50% διασπορά δεν επέφερε καμμία μεταβολή στον καταλυτικό ρυθμό. Αυτό κυρίως οφείλεται στην ύπαρξη μεγάλων υπερτάσεων στην διεπιφάνεια εξαιτίας τόσο της μικρής ιοντικής και ηλεκτρονιακής αγωγιμότητας του φορέα και του ηλεκτροκαταλύτη αντίστοιχα. Η επιβολή θετικού δυναμικού στο σύστημα Pt|AuNaY|Au, Au στο οποίο ο καταλύτης έχει εναποτεθεί με την μορφή φιλμ στο φορέα οπότε και παρουσιάζει μικρή διασπορά, ενισχύει τον καταλυτικό ρυθμό της οξείδωσης του CO κατά 17%. Η ενίσχυση οφείλεται στην απομάκρυνση Na από την επιφάνεια της Pt και στην διευκόλυνση της ρόφησης των αντιδρώντων. Στο Κεφάλαιο 5 αποδεικνύεται ότι η κινητική της καταλυτικής οξείδωσης του H2 σε ηλεκτρόδιο-καταλύτη PtRu/C δύναται να επηρεαστεί δραματικά αφενός με τον έλεγχο του pH των υδατικών ηλεκτρολυτών και αφετέρου με την ηλεκτροχημική πόλωση της διεπιφάνειας ηλεκτροδίου/ηλεκτρολύτη. Η πρώτη περίπτωση ενίσχυσης της καταλυτικής ενεργότητας αποκαλείται για πρώτη φορά με τον όρο: Ηλεκτροχημική Αλληλεπίδραση Μετάλλου Φορέα (Electrochemical Metal Support Interaction, EMSI) και δύναται να θεωρηθεί ως ένα γενικό φαινόμενο αλληλεπίδρασης μετάλλου – φορέα το οποίο εμφανίζεται όταν ο φορέας παρουσιάζει ιοντική αγωγή και τεκμηριώνεται μέσω της αντίδρασης μεταφοράς φορτίου σε ισορροπία που λαμβάνει χώρα στη διεπιφάνεια καταλύτη/φορέα. Η δεύτερη περίπτωση μεταβολής της καταλυτικής ενεργότητας αφορά το ήδη αναγνωρισμένο φαινόμενο της ηλεκτροχημικής ενίσχυσης. Η μελέτη του φαινομένου NEMCA σε διάφορα υδατικά ηλεκτρολυτικά συστήματα μεταβαλλόμενου pH δείχνει την ενίσχυση του φαινομένου όταν ο καταλύτης – ηλεκτρόδιο έρχεται σε επαφή με ηλεκτρολύτες υψηλού pH όπου στη διεπιφάνεια καταλύτη/ηλεκτρολύτη υπερέχει η συγκέντρωση OH-. Συμπεραίνεται ότι με τρόπο ανάλογο όπως στα συστήματα στερεής ηλεκτροχημείας, η μη Φαρανταϊκή ηλεκτροχημική τροποποίηση της καταλυτικής ενεργότητας προάγεται με τη δημιουργία ενός στρώματος πολικών ροφημένων ειδών τα οποία παράγονται ηλεκτροχημικά, από τα υπάρχοντα OH-, στα όρια των σημείων επαφής των τριών φάσεων της εκτεθειμένης στην αέρια φάση καταλυτικής επιφάνειας. Τα Κεφάλαια 6 και 7 αποτελούν την μελέτη του ρόλου του φορέα στις ιδιότητες της Pt, της διασποράς του μετάλλου και της παρουσίας ενός δεύτερου μετάλλου κατά την αντίδραση της αναγωγής του οξυγόνου. Μελετήθηκαν ηλεκτρόδια-καταλύτες Pt διεσπαρμένοι στο οξειδικό μείγμα TiO2/WO3 με συμπαρουσία του άνθρακα. Συγκεκριμένα, παρασκευάσθηκαν τρία ηλεκτρόδια εργασίας που αποτελούνταν από καταλύτη Pt (με ποσοστά μετάλλου 10, 15 και 30%) υποστηριγμένου στον μεικτό οξειδικό φορέα TiO2/WO3 διασπαρμένο σε C. Προκειμένου σύγκρισης μελετήθηκε ο εμπορικός καταλύτης Pt/C της εταιρείας Etek ως ηλεκτρόδιο καθόδου. Τον ηλεκτρολύτη του κελίου αποτέλεσε η πολυμερική μεμβράνη Nafion 115 οπότε και η μέγιστη θερμοκρασία μελέτης της αντίδρασης της αναγωγής ήταν 80°C. Η απόδοση της αναγωγής βελτιώνεται με την αύξηση του ποσοστού της Pt σε 15% καθώς η συγκεκριμένη διεπιφάνεια ηλεκτροδίου/ηλεκτρολύτη χαρακτηρίζεται από την μειωμένη τιμή της κλίσης Tafel μικρών υπερτάσεων ίσης με b1= -0.047V/dec που απαντάται μόνο σε κελία αλκαλικών ηλεκτρολυτών και αποδίδεται στην παρουσία της αποδίδεται στην παρουσία του μεικτού οξειδίου TiO2/WO3 που δρα ως μεμβράνη ιόντων OH- τα οποία υπό συνθήκες ανοδικής πόλωσης διαχέονται και ροφούνται ηλεκτροχημικά στην μεταλλική επιφάνεια συμβάλλοντας στην διευκόλυνση της αναγωγής του οξυγόνου. Η πυκνότητα ρεύματος της αναγωγής με βάση την γεωμετρική επιφάνεια του ηλεκτροδίου υπολογίζεται σε 0.16 Α cm-2 στο δυναμικό των 0.5V στους 25°C. Η περαιτέρω αύξηση της μεταλλικής φόρτισης στον καταλύτη έχει ως αποτέλεσμα την βελτίωση της απόδοσης της αναγωγής του οξυγόνου εφόσον υπολογίζεται σε 0.2 A cm-2 στους 30°C για εξωτερική εφαρμοζόμενη τάση 0.5V. Ο καταλύτης Pt/Ebonex ως ηλεκτρόδιο διάχυσης αερίου σε κυψελίδα πολυμερικής μεμβράνης Nafion παρουσίασε σημαντικές διαφορές από την τυπική συμπεριφορά του ηλεκτροδίου της Pt στην περιοχή της αναγωγής του οξυγόνου. Η έναρξη της ηλεκτροχημικής οξειδικής ρόφησης στο ηλεκτρόδιο Pt/Ebonex προηγείται κατά 0.1V του Pt/C, ενώ η ύπαρξη των δύο καθοδικών κορυφών (I και II) στα 0.68 και 0.78V αποδίδεται στην αντιστρεπτή αναγωγή του Pt-OH και του ροφημένου οξυγόνου, αντίστοιχα. Η παρουσία του οξειδικού φορέα της Pt ως πηγή των OH, που μέσω διάχυσης έχει ως αποτέλεσμα την δημιουργία του πρωτογενούς οξειδίου Pt-OH, φαίνεται να βελτιώνει την αντίδραση της αναγωγής του οξυγόνου. Ο διμεταλλικός καταλύτης PtCo/Ebonex χαρακτηρίζεται περισσότερο ενεργός από τον καταλύτη Pt/C καθώς για τις ίδιες ηλεκτροχημικές δράσεις παρουσιάζει μεγαλύτερο ρεύμα, ενώ παράλληλα μετατοπίζει το δυναμικό της κορυφής αναγωγής κατά 0.05V σε καθοδικότερα δυναμικά όταν η έναρξη της οξειδικής κάλυψης είναι κοινή και για τα δύο ηλεκτρόδια. Αυτό σημαίνει ότι ο διμεταλλικός καταλύτης παρουσία του Ebonex δημιουργεί ασθενέστερο δεσμό με τα οξειδικά είδη και ως εκ τούτου η ρόφηση αλλά και η εκρόφηση (δηλαδή η αναγωγή των οξειδίων) είναι ηλεκτροχημικά πιο γρήγορες διαδικασίες. Η απόδοση της αντίδρασης της αναγωγής, κανονικοποιημένης ως προς την μεταλλική επιφάνεια, συμπίπτει με την ικανότητα του Pt/C γεγονός που συνδέεται με το θετικό ενδεχόμενο της μείωσης του ποσοστού της Pt στον καταλύτη. Το Κεφάλαιο 8 εστιάζεται στη συμπεριφορά των καταλυτών IrOx/C, PtVTiO2/C και RuO2-IrO2/Εbonex κατά την διάσπαση του νερού σε ηλεκτρολυτική κυψελίδα πρωτονιακής μεμβράνης Nafion. Η παρασκευή ηλεκτροδίων Ir σε υπόστρωμα άνθρακα με τη μέθοδο της καθοδικής ιονοβολής υπερέχει σε απόδοση έναντι των συμβατικών θερμικών μεθόδων παρασκευής ανόδων καθώς στους 90°C και στο δυναμικό των 1.56V η πυκνότητα ρεύματος ισούται με 1.1A cm-2 κατατάσσοντας την συγκεκριμένη άνοδο στις λειτουργικότερες για την παραγωγή O2 με γνώμονα τις βιβλιογραφικές αναφορές. Εκτός της απόδοσης, σημειώνεται η ικανή μηχανική συταθερότητα του ηλεκτροδίου αλλά και η παρουσία μικρότερων φορτίσεων καταλύτη ανά μονάδα επιφάνειας ηλεκτροδίου, παράμετροι που συνηγορούν στην προτεινόμενη χρήση τους για πρακτικές εφαρμογές. Ο διμεταλλικός καταλύτης PtV/TiO2/C με την παρουσία του βαναδίου σε υψηλές οξειδωτικές καταστάσεις (V4+ ή/και V5+), φαίνεται να διευκολύνει την ανοδική αντίδραση καθώς το δυναμικό έναρξης της παραγωγής του οξυγόνου εντοπίζεται στα ~1.25V παρουσιάζοντας μετατόπιση κατά 0.25V καθοδικότερα σε σχέση με το ηλεκτρόδιο Pt/C. / The present thesis constitutes at one part the study of phenomenon of non Faradaic Electrochemical Modification of Catalytic Activity (NEMCA effect), based on the investigation of the controlled ionic migration of a zeolite material under potential imposition and shoot for the application of NEMCA in well dispersed catalytic systems as in aqueous electrolytic systems of various pH. The second part of this work investigates the possibilities of cathode’s improvement in the case of oxygen reduction reaction as well as the anode’s for the water splitting using low temperature polymer electrolyte membrane. Chapter 1 introduces the basic concepts and terminology of Electrochemical Promotion (NEMCA effect) and includes the complete list of all bibliographic reports that investigates and corroborates the phenomenon. The experimental designs that are used in the research of NEMCA effect are described and the parameters of phenomenon are analyzed as well as the rules that were founded with the classification and analysis of experimental results and constitute practical beginnings of the behavior of any reaction. Chapter 2 describes the fundamental electronic terms of solid surfaces (metal or semiconductor) as well as the electric and thermodynamic parameters that characterize the electrode /electrolyte interface and generally an electrodic action. Chapter 3 deals with the methods of characterization and analysis as well as the experimental techniques that were used is described concisely. The scope of the first part of Chapter 4 is the migration of Na+ to/from the electrochemical interface of Au/NaY under vacuum and oxygen conditions in a controllable potensiostatic manner. In the second part of Chapter 4 the NEMCA effect is investigated on Pt/NaY under the oxidation of CO as the model reaction. It is found that two main species exist into the zeolite matrix, these that being strongly bonded in the matrix stayed unperturbed with an electric field and those that can be moved during the potential imposition resulted in the ionic conductivity. Especially, at vacuum conditions, the negative overpotential doesn’t influence the coverage of Naad on the Au surface while at oxygen atmosphere there is an enhancement by 4 times. The latter implies the significant role of oxygen that promotes the charge transfer of Na+ and consequently increases the Naad coverage on the working electrtode. The electrochemical study of the interface Pt /NaY where the metal dispersion is up to 50% showed that under positive overpotential the catalytic rate doesn’t change. However the metal dispersion decreasing provokes the catalytic rate up to 17%. The catalytic enhancement was ascribed to the depletion of Na adsorbate from Pt surface. In Chapter 5 proved that the kinetics of catalytic oxidation of H2 on PtRu/C influenced dramatically from one side with the pH variation of the aqueous electrolyte and from the other side with the electrode/electrolyte polarization. The pH effect is called for the first time with the term: Electrochemical Metal Support Interaction, EMSI and it is considered as a general phenomenon of metal-support interaction which presents when the support is an ionic conductor via the charge transfer reaction in equilibrium that takes place at the electrode/electrolyte interface. The second case of change of catalytic activity concerns the already recognized phenomenon of electrochemical promotion. NEMCA effect occurred at electrode/aqueous electrolyte interface combines with the formation of the effective double layer created at the tpb region made of . Chapters 6 and 7 deal with investigations on the influence of the support and the existence of a second metal on Pt catalysts at the oxygen reduction reaction. The studied electrodes support were the oxides of TiO2 and WO3 on carbon. The reaction is characterized by the decreased Tafel slope in the region of low overpotentials as it is found equal to -0.047V/dec which can be observed only in alkaline electrolytes and is attributed to the presence of the oxidic support that acts as membrane of OH- ions that diffused and electrochemically adsorbed on the metal surface contributing in the facilitation of reduction of oxygen. The current density of the reaction based on the geometrical area is up to 0.2 A cm -2 at 0.5V (30°C). Pt on Ebonex shows important differences from the typical behavior of investigated catalysts with the existence of two cathodic peaks at 0.68 and 0.78V (vs. RHE). The first peak is attributed to the Pt-OH reduction while the latter is being associated with the reduction of molecular oxygen. The bimetallic PtCo/Ebonex is being more active than Pt/C towards oxygen reduction reaction showing larger current densities while the reduction potential is been shifted 0.05V to the positive direction. Chapter 8 deals with investigations on the electrochemical water splitting using polymer electrolyte membrane on thin films of iridium oxide deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering. Very high performance was obtained resulted in current densities up to 1.1 A cm-2 at 1.56V and 90°C. Bimetallic PtV/TiO2/C with the presence of vanadium in high oxidative states (V4+ and/or V5+), appears to facilitate the reaction of oxygen evolution as the onset potential is shifted at ~1.25V.

Graphene has great potential for energy storage and conversion applications due to its outstanding electrical conductivity, large surface area and chemical stability. However, the pristine graphene offers unsatisfactory performance as a result of several intrinsic limitations such as aggregation and inertness. The functionalization of graphene is considered as a powerful way to modify the physical and chemical properties of graphene, and improve the material performance, which unfortunately still being preliminary and need further knowledge on controllable functionalization methods and the structure-property relationships. This thesis aims to provide in-depth understanding on these aspects. We firstly explored oxygen-functionalized graphene for supercapacitor electrodes. A mild solvothermal method was developed for graphene preparation from the reduction of graphene oxide; the solvent-dependent reduction kinetics is an interesting finding in this method that could be attributed to the solvent-graphene oxide interactions. Using the solvothermal method, oxygen-functionalized graphene with controlled density of oxygen functional groups was prepared by tuning the reduction time. The oxygen-containing groups, primarily phenols and quinones, reduce the graphene aggregation, improve the wetting properties and introduce the pseudocapacitance. Consequently, excellent supercapacitive performance was achieved. Nitrogen-doped graphene was synthesized by the pyrolysis of graphene oxide with nitrogen-containing molecules and used as an electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reactions. We achieved the structural control of the nitrogen-doped graphene, mainly the content of graphitic nitrogen, by manipulating the pyrolysis temperature and the structure of nitrogen-containing molecules; these experiments help understand the evolution of the bonding configurations of nitrogen dopants during pyrolysis. Superior catalytic activity of the prepared nitrogen-doped graphene was found, due to the enriched content of graphitic nitrogen that is most active for the oxygen reduction reaction. Moreover, we demonstrated a facile strategy of producing superhydrophobic octadecylamine-functionalized graphite oxide films. The long hydrocarbon chain in octadecylamine reduces the surface energy of the graphene oxide film, resulting in a high water contact angle and low hysteresis. The reaction mechanism and the effect of hydrocarbon chain length were systematically investigated. In addition to the researches on graphene-based materials, some results on advanced carbon nanomaterials and polymer composites for electronic packaging will also be discussed as appendix to the thesis. These include carbon nanotube-based capacitive deionizer and gas sensor, and hexagonal boron nitride-epoxy composites for high thermal conductivity underfill.

Afin de mieux comprendre et de dépasser les limites actuelles des systèmes métal-air non-aqueux, le mécanisme de réduction de l’oxygène (ORR) a été étudié en présence de cation alcalins dans divers solvants aprotiques. Sur la base de caractérisations électrochimiques sur électrode statique et d’électrodes tournantes disque-anneau, un mécanisme unique a été proposé afin de rendre compte de l’ORR en présence de cations alcalins. De plus, les différences observées d’un solvant à l’autre ont été expliquées en termes de capacité du solvant à solvater à la fois le cation alcalin en présence et l’anion superoxyde, mais aussi à sa capacité à séparer les paires d’ions. Un modèle cinétique basé sur ce mécanisme a montré un excellent accord avec les résultats expérimentaux. / In order to better understand and overcome the current limitations of non-aqueous metal-air batteries, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) mechanism has been studied in presence of different alkali metal cations in several aprotic solvents. Based on electrochemical characterizations on static electrode and rotating ring-disk electrode, a unique mechanism has been proposed to account for ORR in presence of alkali metal cations. It has been further showed that the differences observed from one solvent to another could be linked to the solvent’s ability to solvate both the alkali metal cation and the superoxide anion, as well as its capability to separate ion-pairs. A kinetic model based on this mechanism has shown very good agreement with experimental results.

abstract: Mechanisms for oxygen reduction are proposed for three distinct cases covering two ionic liquids of fundamentally different archetypes and almost thirty orders of magnitude of proton activity. Proton activity is treated both extrinsically by varying the concentration and intrinsically by selecting proton donors with a wide range of aqueous pKa values. The mechanism of oxygen reduction in ionic liquids is introduced by way of the protic ionic liquid (pIL) triethylammonium triflate (TEATf) which shares some similarities with aqueous acid solutions. Oxygen reduction in TEATf begins as the one electron rate limited step to form superoxide, O2*-, which is then rapidly protonated by the pIL cation forming the perhydroxyl radical, HO2*. The perhydroxyl radical is further reduced to peroxidate (HO2-) and hydrogen peroxide in proportions in accordance with their pKa. The reaction does not proceed beyond this point due to the adsorption of the conjugate base triethylammine interfering with the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide. This work demonstrates that this mechanism is consistent across Pt, Au, Pd, and Ag electrodes. Two related sets of experiments were performed in the inherently aprotic ionic liquid 1-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium triflate (C4dMImTf). The first involved the titration of acidic species of varying aqueous pKa into the IL while monitoring the extent of oxygen reduction as a function of pKa and potential on Pt and glassy carbon (GC) electrodes. These experiments confirmed the greater propensity of Pt to reduce oxygen by its immediate and abrupt transition from one electron reduction to four electron reduction, while oxygen reduction on GC gradually approaches four electron reduction as the potentials were driven more cathodic. The potential at which oxygen reduction initiates shows general agreement with the Nernst equation and the acid's tabulated aqueous pKa value, however at the extremely acidic end, a small deviation is observed. The second set of experiments in C4dMImTf solicited water as the proton donor for oxygen reduction in an approximation of the aqueous alkaline case. The water content was varied between extremely dry (<0.1 mol% H2O) and saturated (approximately 15.8 mol% H2O}). As the water content increased so too did the extent of oxygen reduction eventually approach two electrons on both Pt and GC. However, additional water led to a linear increase in the Tafel slope under enhanced mass transport conditions up to the point of 10 mol% water. This inhibition of oxygen adsorption is the result of the interaction between superoxide and water and more specifically is proposed to be associated with decomposition of theC4dMIm+ cation by hydroxide at the elevated temperatures required for the experiment. Oxygen reduction on both Pt and GC follows Nernstian behavior as the water content is increased. Separate mechanisms for oxygen reduction on Pt and GC are proposed based on the nature of the Nernstian response in these systems. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Materials Science and Engineering 2011

Nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes have attracted attention in areas such as energy production and storage, sensing, and electrosynthesis. The electrochemical properties of these electrodes depend upon the nanoparticle properties, e.g., core size, core morphology, surface chemistry, as well as the structure of the nanoparticle/electrode interface, including the coverage on the electrode surface, choice of electrode support, and the interface between the nanoparticle and the electrode support. Traditionally used methods of producing nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes lack sufficient control over many of these variables, particularly the nanoparticle/electrode interface. Tethering nanoparticles to electrodes with molecular linkers is a strategy to fabricate nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes that provides enhanced control over the nanoparticle/electrode structure. However, many existing tethering methods are done on catalytically active electrode supports, which makes isolating the electrochemical activity of the nanoparticle challenging. Furthermore, previous work has focused on larger nanoparticles, yet smaller nanoparticles with core diameters less than 2.5 nm are of interest due to their unique structural and electronic properties. This dissertation addresses both of these gaps, exploring small nanoparticle electrocatalysts that are molecularly tethered to catalytically inert electrodes. This dissertation first reviews and compares the methods of fabricating nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes with a defined molecular interface in the context of relevant attributes for electrochemical applications. Next, a new platform approach to bind small gold nanoparticles to catalytically inert boron doped diamond electrodes through a defined molecular interface is described, and the influence of the nanoparticle/electrode interface on the electron transfer properties of these materials is evaluated. The next two studies build upon this platform to evaluate molecularly tethered nanoparticles as oxygen electroreduction catalysts. The first of these two describes the systematic study of atomically precise small gold clusters, highlighting the influence of atomic level differences in the core size and the electrode support material on the catalytic properties. The second study extends the platform approach to study small bimetallic silver-gold nanoparticles produced on the electrode surface and highlights the influence of the structural arrangement of the metals on the catalytic activity. Finally, future opportunities for the field of molecularly tethered nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes are discussed. This dissertation includes previously published and unpublished co-authored material. / 2019-01-27

A complexidade da reação de redução do oxigênio (RRO) e suas perdas de potencial a fazem responsável por grande parte das perdas de eficiência nas células a combustível. Para esta reação o eletrocatalisador mais apropriado e com melhor desempenho é a Platina, um metal nobre e que torna alto o custo da tecnologia das células a combustível, aumentando as barreiras para entrar no mercado. Primeiramente o trabalho teve em vista reduzir a quantidade em massa de platina utilizada no cátodo, sendo substituída por óxidos de terras raras. Observando que os métodos mais comuns de síntese de eletrocatalisadores para a aplicação em células a combustível se realizam em enumeras etapas, este trabalho se propôs a preparar eletrocatalisadores através de etapas mais simples e que dependessem de menos etapas e tempo de preparo. Através da mistura física simples utilizando ultrassom foram preparados eletrocatalisadores de platina suportada em carbono com os óxidos das terras raras lantânio, cério e érbio, para o estudo em meia célula da RRO. O resultado do gráfico de Koutecky-Levich mostrou que entre os eletrocatalisadores preparados o Pt80Ce20/C foi o que apresentou atividade catalítica mais próxima da platina comercial BASF, sugerindo que a RRO aconteceu via 4 elétrons. Como encontrado na em alguns trabalhos da literatura, entre as terras raras aplicada no cátodo, o cério é o elemento que mais contribui para esta substituição, devido a sua capacidade de estocar e fornecer oxigênio. Esta característica é um grande atrativo para a RRO pois esta reação é primeira ordem em relação a concentração de oxigênio. O resultado mostrou que é possível diminuir a quantidade de platina mantendo atividade catalítica. / The complexity of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and its potential losses make it responsible for the most part of efficiency losses at the Fuel Cells. For this reaction the electrocatalyst witch is most appropriated and shows better performance is platinum, a noble metal that elevates the cost, raising barriers for Fuel Cells technology to enter the market. First this work focuses on reducing the amount of platinum used in the cathode, by being replaced by rare earths. The most common methods of synthesis involves a large amount of steps and this work proposed to prepare the electrocatalyst through a simpler way that would not take so many steps and time to be done. Using an ultrasound mixer the electrocatalyst was prepared mixing platinum supported on carbon black and the rare earths lanthanum, cerium and erbium oxides to be applied in a half-cell study of the ORR. The Koutecky-Levich plots shows that among the electrocatalysts prepared the Pt80Ce20/C had the catalytic activity close to the commercial BASF platinum on carbon black, suggesting that the reaction was taken by the 4-electron path. As found in some works in literature, among the rare earth used to study the ORR, cerium is the one witch shows the better performance because it is able to store and provide oxygen. This feature is of great interest for the ORR because this reaction is first order to the oxygen concentration. Results show that is possible to reduce the amount of platinum maintaining the same electrocatalyst activity.