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La maladie de Parkinson est une maladie neurodégénérative progressive qui affecte le système nerveux central et se caractérise par des symptômes moteurs et non moteurs. Ces derniers comprennent des troubles du sommeil, des perturbations neuropsychiatriques et comportementales. En particulier, environ 50 % des patients atteints de la maladie de Parkinson (MP) souffrent de troubles du comportement du sommeil paradoxal (TDS), une parasomnie caractérisée par des comportements moteurs liés à des rêves. Les patients atteints de la MP souffrant de RBD ont tendance à présenter des symptômes moteurs et non moteurs plus graves que les patients ne souffrant pas de RBD, ce qui suggère que le RBD est un marqueur d'un processus neurodégénératif plus répandu. Parmi les symptômes non moteurs, les troubles neuropsychiatriques sont fréquents dans la DP et comprennent la dépression, les symptômes d'anxiété, l'apathie et les troubles du contrôle des impulsions (DCI), une complication déclenchée par la thérapie de remplacement de la dopamine (TRP). Pourtant, aucune étude n'a évalué si les patients atteints de MP et de troubles respiratoires chroniques présentent une fréquence accrue de symptômes neuropsychiatriques, en particulier des troubles du contrôle des impulsions et de l'apathie. Objectifs : évaluer si la DBR est associée aux maladies inflammatoires chroniques et/ou à l'apathie dans la maladie de Parkinson et caractériser le profil neuropsychiatrique des patients atteints de DBR. Matériel et méthodes : n=216 patients PD non déments consécutifs consultant une clinique universitaire de troubles du mouvement à Turin et Clermont-Ferrand (130 M, âge moyen : 66,9±10,8 ans) ont rempli des questionnaires pour le RBD et les CIM. En outre, 40 patients atteints de MP ayant reçu un diagnostic clinique de maladie inflammatoire chronique et 40 patients atteints de MP sans maladie inflammatoire chronique, appariés par sexe et âge, ont subi une vidéopolysomnographie (v-PSG) afin de déterminer la fréquence de la DBR. L'apathie a été évaluée chez 36 patients ayant subi une v-PSG (n=18 patients atteints de MP avec DCI, n=18 patients atteints de la MP), et sa relation avec la dépression, avec un large éventail de fonctions neuropsychologiques ainsi qu'avec des symptômes moteurs et non moteurs a été évaluée. Résultats : la DBR probable a été associée à un risque de 2,6 de développer des symptômes de CIM dans l'ensemble (p=0,001) et à un risque de 4,9 pour le jeu pathologique (p= 0,049). La RBD confirmée par le VPSG a été trouvée chez 34/40 (85%) des patients atteints de PD-ICD contre 21/40 (53%) des patients atteints de PD-noICD (p=0,003). L'association était significative après ajustement de la durée de la maladie, de l'âge d'apparition, de la gravité et de la dose de traitement (p=0,01) et l'état de la CIM est associé à un rapport impair de 5,44 pour avoir une DBR. L'apathie était plus élevée chez les patients atteints de DBR que chez les patients atteints de la MP sans DBR. Après 11 ajustements en fonction de l'âge, de la durée de la DP, des doses de DRT, des mesures cognitives et de la dépression, nous avons constaté que les PD-RBD présentent un manque d'initiative (p=0,03) ainsi qu'une tendance à la réduction des intérêts et à la recherche de nouveauté. L'ampleur de l'effet était importante (>0,8) ou presque (>0,75) pour ces variables. De plus, l'apathie était significativement corrélée à la mesure du sommeil paradoxal sans atonie. Conclusions : Nous avons montré pour la première fois que le RBD est associé à des DCI dans le DP. De plus, les patients RBD sans DAI sont plus apathiques que les patients sans RBD. Un traitement dysfonctionnel de la récompense dans le DP-RBD, résultant peut-être d'une altération plus grave de la voie méso-cortico-limbique, peut contribuer à la fois à une apathie accrue et à une fréquence accrue des DAI lorsqu'ils sont traités avec des doses plus élevées de DRT. / Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting the central nervous system characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. The latter include sleep disorders as well as neuropsychiatric and behavioral disturbances. In particular, about 50% of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) suffer from REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), a parasomnia characterized by dream-enactment motor behaviors. PD patients with RBD tends to have more severe both motor and non-motor symptoms than PD without RBD, suggesting that RBD is a marker of a more widespread neurodegenerative process. Among non-motor symptoms, neuropsychiatric disorders are frequent in PD and include depression, anxiety symptoms, apathy and impulse control disorders (ICD), a complication triggered by dopamine replacement therapy (DRT). Yet, no study has assessed whether PD- RBD patients have an increased frequency of neuropsychiatric symptoms, particularly ICD and apathy. Objectives: to assess whether RBD is associated to ICDs and/or apathy in Parkinson’s Disease and to characterize the neuropsychiatric profile of PD patients with RBD. Material and methods: n=216 consecutive non-demented PD patients consulting a university movement disorders clinics in Turin and Clermont-Ferrand (130 M, mean age:66.9±10.8yrs.) filled out questionnaires for RBD and ICDs. Furthermore, 40 consecutive PD patients with a clinical diagnosis of ICD and 40 sex-and age-matched PD patients without ICD underwent to video-polysomnography (v-PSG) in order to determine the frequency of RBD. Apathy was assessed in 36 v-PSG recorded PD patients (n=18 PD with RBD, n=18 age- and sex-matched PD without RBD), and its relationship with depression, with a broad array of neuropsychological functions as well as with motor and non-motor symptoms was evaluated. Results: probable RBD was associated to a risk of 2.6 to develop ICD symptoms as a whole (p=0.001) and a risk of 4.9 for pathological gambling (p= 0.049). VPSG-confirmed RBD was found in 34/40 (85%) PD-ICD patients versus 21/40 (53%) PD-noICD (p=0.003). The association was significant after adjusting for PD duration, age of onset, severity and treatment dose (p=0.01) and the condition of ICD is associated to an odd ratio of 5.44 to have RBD. Apathy was higher in patients with RBD compared to PD without RBD. After 11 adjusting for age, PD duration, DRT doses, cognitive measures and depression, we found that PD-RBD have a lack of Initiative (p=0.03) together with a trend for reduced interests and novelty seeking. The effect size was large (>0.8) or almost large (>0.75) for these variables. Furthermore, apathy significantly correlated with measure of REM sleep without atonia. Conclusions: We showed for the first time that RBD is associated to ICDs in PD. Furthermore, RBD patients without ICD are more apathetic compared to patients without RBD. Dysfunctional reward processing in PD-RBD, possibly resulting from a more severe impairment of the meso-cortico-limbic pathway, may contribute to both increased apathy, and increased frequency of ICDs when treated with higher doses of DRT.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Sono e imunidade parecem apresentar uma relação de reciprocidade. A ativação do sistema imune altera o padrão de sono e distúrbios do sono podem afetar a função imune. Além disso, é bem descrito que a privação de sono paradoxal (PSP) leva à hiperalgesia e o tratamento com fármacos clássicos, como opióides ou antidepressivos tricíclicos, não é capaz de reverter este quadro. Neste trabalho, avaliamos se a PSP afetaria a resposta inflamatória e a sobrevida em ratos e se o tratamento com um análogo sintético de lipoxinas (ATL-1) seria capaz de reverter a hiperalgesia induzida pela PSP. Todos os protocolos experimentais foram previamente aprovados pelo Comitê de Ética para o Uso de Animais, da UERJ (CEUA/032/2010). Ratos Wistar machos foram submetidos a 96 h de PSP, induzidas pelo método de plataforma única (PU) ou de múltiplas plataformas modificado (MPM). Após 96 h de PSP os animais foram submetidos ao modelo da bolha de ar ou pleurisia utilizando-se a carragenina como agente flogístico, ou ainda a PSP foi aplicada antes ou após a indução de um modelo de ligação e perfuração do ceco (CLP). Quatro horas após a injeção de carragenina os animais apresentaram um aumento no recrutamento de leucócitos para a cavidade da bolha, porém não houve diferença entre animais PSP e controles. O número total de leucócitos no plasma não se alterou após a injeção de carragenina. Na pleurisia, os animais PSP apresentaram um aumento nos níveis de IL-6, IL-1β e TNF-α no plasma, enquanto apenas IL-1β e IL-6 estavam aumentados no exsudato pleural dos animais que receberam carragenina. O padrão de recrutamento de leucócitos para o local da injúria foi bastante semelhante entre os animais controle e PSP 2 h, 4 h e 24 h após a injeção de carragenina. Houve um aumento progressivo com o tempo, apresentando um pico em 24 h, no entanto, não foi observada diferença significativa na resposta dos grupos PSP. A PSP aplicada antes ou após a indução do CLP reduziu a sobrevida dos animais, mas não alterou o acúmulo de neutrófilos, nos dois protocolos. Quando a PSP foi aplicada antes do CLP, os níveis séricos de IL-6 estavam aumentados nos grupos PSP e PSPCLP, porém quando a PSP foi aplicada após o CLP, ambas IL-6 e IL-1β estavam aumentadas nos grupo PSPCLP. O efeito do tratamento com ATL-1 (10 g/kg, i.v.) na hiperalgesia induzida pela PSP foi determinado através do teste da formalina. O análogo reduziu o número de comportamentos relacionados à dor em animais PSP e controles na fase inflamatória do teste. Nossos resultados demonstraram que a PSP por 96 h aumentou os níveis plasmáticos de citocinas, reduziu a sobrevida dos animais, contudo não foi capaz de alterar o recrutamento de leucócitos frente a um estímulo inflamatório ou infeccioso. O aumento de mediadores inflamatórios observado nesses animais pode estar relacionado à hiperalgesia em animais PSP, uma vez que o tratamento com o ATL-1 reverteu esse efeito, possivelmente através de mecanismos envolvendo sua ação anti-inflamatória. / Sleep and immunity show a reciprocal relationship. Immune system activation alters sleep pattern and sleep disturbances can affect immune function. Moreover, it is well known that paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) leads to hyperalgesia and the treatment with classical drugs like opioids or tricyclic antidepressants is not able to reverse this hyperalgesia. In this work we investigated whether PSD could affect inflammatory response and survival in rats and if ATL-1 treatment would be able to reverse the hyperalgesia induced by PSD. All experimental protocols were previously approved by The Animal Care Ethical Committee of UERJ (CEUA/032/2010). Male Wistar rats were submitted to 96 h of PSD by single platform or modified multiple platforms methods. After 96 h of PSD animals were submitted to carrageenan-induced air pouch or pleurisy, or PSD was induced prior or after cecal ligation and puncture model (CLP). Animals presented an increase in leukocyte recruitment to the pouch cavity 4 h after carrageenan injection, however there was no difference between PSD and controls. The number of plasma leukocyte did not change after carrageenan injection. PSD animals submitted to pleurisy showed an increase in IL-6, IL-1β e TNF-α plasma levels, while IL-1β and IL-6 were increased in pleural exsudate of animals that received carrageenan. Leukocyte recruitment pattern to the site of injury was similar between controls and PSD 2 h, 4 h and 24 h after carrageenan injection. There was a progressive increase with time, reaching the maximum point at 24 h, but no differences were observed in PSD groups. PSD induced prior or after CLP decreased animals survival, however no difference was observed on neutrophil accumulation in both protocols. When PSD was induced prior CLP, IL-6 plasma levels were increased in PSD e PSDCLP groups, when PSD was induced after CLP, IL-6 and IL-1β plasma levels were increased in PSDCLP group. The effect of ATL-1 treatment (10 g/kg, i.v.) on hyperalgesia induced by PSD was determined through formalin test. The treatment reduced the number of pain related behaviors in PSD animals and controls on inflammatory phase. Our results show that ATL-1 was able to revert the hyperalgesia induced by PSD possibly through its anti-inflammatory action. Furthermore, PSD for 96 h increased cytokine plasma levels and reduced survival, however it was not able to modify leukocyte recruitment when challenged by an inflammatory or infectious stimulus. However the inflammatory mediators increase observed in PSD animals could be related to hyperalgesia since treatment with ATL-1 reverted this effect, possibly through anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A privação de sono paradoxal (PSP) provoca diversas alterações neuroquímicas e comportamentais relacionadas a mudanças nas funções de sistemas de neurotransmissores. São descritas na literatura respostas aumentadas a estímulos álgicos em animais privados desta fase de sono. Os métodos de PSP frequentemente utilizados têm sido associados à geração de ansiedade nos animais, e a hiperalgesia observada poderia, portanto, ser conseqüência aos estímulos ansiogênicos gerados pelo método. Neste trabalho tivemos como objetivos avaliar se o método utilizado para a PSP é ansiogênico e investigar o efeito dos fármacos ansiolítico, diazepam e analgésico, ácido acetilsalicílico sobre a ansiedade e resposta a estímulos térmicos álgicos em animais PSP. Ratos machos Wistar com 90 dias de vida foram privados de sono paradoxal por 96 horas, sendo a resposta álgica avaliada pelo tempo de retirada da pata traseira em ratos expostos à placa quente (46C). A avaliação do nível de ansiedade dos animais foi feita através do teste do campo aberto, através da relação entre a permanência nos quadrantes centrais e nos quadrantes periféricos, e também pelo teste do labirinto em cruz elevado, sendo quantificado o número de vezes que o animal entrava nos braços abertos do labirinto e o tempo gasto pelo animal nos mesmos braços. Os animais PSP apresentaram aumento no índice de locomoção em relação aos animais controles (+314,8%, p<0,05), aumento no número de entradas (+257,1%) e no tempo gasto nos braços abertos do labirinto em cruz elevado (+319,2%, p<0,05), e redução na latência de retirada da pata traseira da placa quente (-64,2%, p<0,05). O fármaco diazepam, não influenciou nas respostas apresentadas pelos animais PSP no teste de campo aberto e no teste da placa quente, mas influenciou nas repostas apresentadas por estes animais no teste do labirinto em cruz elevado tanto no tempo (+308, p<0,05), quanto no número de entradas (+316,6%, p<0,05). O fármaco ácido acetilsalicílico promoveu uma diminuição do índice de locomoção nos animais PSP submetidos ao teste de campo aberto que também foram administrados com o diazepam (-99,5%, p<0,05). No teste da placa quente o ácido acetilsalicílico não apresentou nenhuma influência na percepção de dor nos animais. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicam que o método de privação de sono paradoxal por período de 96 horas não induz ansiedade, e a redução farmacológica dos níveis de ansiedade não influencia na resposta álgica induzida pela privação de sono paradoxal. / Paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) causes several neurochemical and behavioral changes related to alterations in neurotransmitters systems. Increased responses to nociceptive stimuli have been reported in animals deprived of this phase of sleep. The commonly used methods of PSD have been linked to the generation of anxiety in animals, and hyperalgesia could, therefore, be due to anxiety stimuli generated by the method. The purpose of this study was to investigate anxiety induced by the PSD method and the effect of the anxiolytic drug diazepam and analgesic drug acetylsalicylic acid on anxiety and response to thermal nociceptive stimuli. Male Wistar rats of 90 days of life were deprived from sleep for 96 hours and submitted to the nociceptive test on the hot plate (46C). The assessment of anxiety level of animals was performed using the open field test, where they made the link between residence in central and peripheral squares, and also by test of the elevated plus maze, whose endpoint was to quantify the number of times that the animal entered in the open arms of the maze and measure the time spent by the animal in the same arms. PSD animals showed increased rate of locomotion compared to control animals (+314.8%, p <0.05), longer time spent in open arms of elevated plus maze (+319.2%, p <0.05), largest number of entries in the same arms of the maze (+257.1%) and reductions in latency to withdraw the hind paw of the hot plate (-64.2%, p <0.05). The drug diazepam, did not influence the responses made by PSD animals in the open field and hot plate test, but influenced the answers given by these animals in test of the elevated plus maze in both time (+308, p <0.05), or the number of entries (+316.6%, p <0.05). The drug acetylsalicylic acid caused a decline in the rate of locomotion in PSD animals subjected to the open field test that also was administered with diazepam (-99.5%, p <0.05). The results of this study indicated that the method of paradoxical sleep deprivation does not appear to be anxiogenic. The results obtained in this work showed that the PSD method does not induce anxiety and the pharmacological reduction in anxiety does not interfere in the increased algic response induced by paradoxical sleep deprivation.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Sono e imunidade parecem apresentar uma relação de reciprocidade. A ativação do sistema imune altera o padrão de sono e distúrbios do sono podem afetar a função imune. Além disso, é bem descrito que a privação de sono paradoxal (PSP) leva à hiperalgesia e o tratamento com fármacos clássicos, como opióides ou antidepressivos tricíclicos, não é capaz de reverter este quadro. Neste trabalho, avaliamos se a PSP afetaria a resposta inflamatória e a sobrevida em ratos e se o tratamento com um análogo sintético de lipoxinas (ATL-1) seria capaz de reverter a hiperalgesia induzida pela PSP. Todos os protocolos experimentais foram previamente aprovados pelo Comitê de Ética para o Uso de Animais, da UERJ (CEUA/032/2010). Ratos Wistar machos foram submetidos a 96 h de PSP, induzidas pelo método de plataforma única (PU) ou de múltiplas plataformas modificado (MPM). Após 96 h de PSP os animais foram submetidos ao modelo da bolha de ar ou pleurisia utilizando-se a carragenina como agente flogístico, ou ainda a PSP foi aplicada antes ou após a indução de um modelo de ligação e perfuração do ceco (CLP). Quatro horas após a injeção de carragenina os animais apresentaram um aumento no recrutamento de leucócitos para a cavidade da bolha, porém não houve diferença entre animais PSP e controles. O número total de leucócitos no plasma não se alterou após a injeção de carragenina. Na pleurisia, os animais PSP apresentaram um aumento nos níveis de IL-6, IL-1&#946; e TNF-&#945; no plasma, enquanto apenas IL-1&#946; e IL-6 estavam aumentados no exsudato pleural dos animais que receberam carragenina. O padrão de recrutamento de leucócitos para o local da injúria foi bastante semelhante entre os animais controle e PSP 2 h, 4 h e 24 h após a injeção de carragenina. Houve um aumento progressivo com o tempo, apresentando um pico em 24 h, no entanto, não foi observada diferença significativa na resposta dos grupos PSP. A PSP aplicada antes ou após a indução do CLP reduziu a sobrevida dos animais, mas não alterou o acúmulo de neutrófilos, nos dois protocolos. Quando a PSP foi aplicada antes do CLP, os níveis séricos de IL-6 estavam aumentados nos grupos PSP e PSPCLP, porém quando a PSP foi aplicada após o CLP, ambas IL-6 e IL-1&#946; estavam aumentadas nos grupo PSPCLP. O efeito do tratamento com ATL-1 (10 g/kg, i.v.) na hiperalgesia induzida pela PSP foi determinado através do teste da formalina. O análogo reduziu o número de comportamentos relacionados à dor em animais PSP e controles na fase inflamatória do teste. Nossos resultados demonstraram que a PSP por 96 h aumentou os níveis plasmáticos de citocinas, reduziu a sobrevida dos animais, contudo não foi capaz de alterar o recrutamento de leucócitos frente a um estímulo inflamatório ou infeccioso. O aumento de mediadores inflamatórios observado nesses animais pode estar relacionado à hiperalgesia em animais PSP, uma vez que o tratamento com o ATL-1 reverteu esse efeito, possivelmente através de mecanismos envolvendo sua ação anti-inflamatória. / Sleep and immunity show a reciprocal relationship. Immune system activation alters sleep pattern and sleep disturbances can affect immune function. Moreover, it is well known that paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) leads to hyperalgesia and the treatment with classical drugs like opioids or tricyclic antidepressants is not able to reverse this hyperalgesia. In this work we investigated whether PSD could affect inflammatory response and survival in rats and if ATL-1 treatment would be able to reverse the hyperalgesia induced by PSD. All experimental protocols were previously approved by The Animal Care Ethical Committee of UERJ (CEUA/032/2010). Male Wistar rats were submitted to 96 h of PSD by single platform or modified multiple platforms methods. After 96 h of PSD animals were submitted to carrageenan-induced air pouch or pleurisy, or PSD was induced prior or after cecal ligation and puncture model (CLP). Animals presented an increase in leukocyte recruitment to the pouch cavity 4 h after carrageenan injection, however there was no difference between PSD and controls. The number of plasma leukocyte did not change after carrageenan injection. PSD animals submitted to pleurisy showed an increase in IL-6, IL-1&#946; e TNF-&#945; plasma levels, while IL-1&#946; and IL-6 were increased in pleural exsudate of animals that received carrageenan. Leukocyte recruitment pattern to the site of injury was similar between controls and PSD 2 h, 4 h and 24 h after carrageenan injection. There was a progressive increase with time, reaching the maximum point at 24 h, but no differences were observed in PSD groups. PSD induced prior or after CLP decreased animals survival, however no difference was observed on neutrophil accumulation in both protocols. When PSD was induced prior CLP, IL-6 plasma levels were increased in PSD e PSDCLP groups, when PSD was induced after CLP, IL-6 and IL-1&#946; plasma levels were increased in PSDCLP group. The effect of ATL-1 treatment (10 g/kg, i.v.) on hyperalgesia induced by PSD was determined through formalin test. The treatment reduced the number of pain related behaviors in PSD animals and controls on inflammatory phase. Our results show that ATL-1 was able to revert the hyperalgesia induced by PSD possibly through its anti-inflammatory action. Furthermore, PSD for 96 h increased cytokine plasma levels and reduced survival, however it was not able to modify leukocyte recruitment when challenged by an inflammatory or infectious stimulus. However the inflammatory mediators increase observed in PSD animals could be related to hyperalgesia since treatment with ATL-1 reverted this effect, possibly through anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A privação de sono paradoxal (PSP) provoca diversas alterações neuroquímicas e comportamentais relacionadas a mudanças nas funções de sistemas de neurotransmissores. São descritas na literatura respostas aumentadas a estímulos álgicos em animais privados desta fase de sono. Os métodos de PSP frequentemente utilizados têm sido associados à geração de ansiedade nos animais, e a hiperalgesia observada poderia, portanto, ser conseqüência aos estímulos ansiogênicos gerados pelo método. Neste trabalho tivemos como objetivos avaliar se o método utilizado para a PSP é ansiogênico e investigar o efeito dos fármacos ansiolítico, diazepam e analgésico, ácido acetilsalicílico sobre a ansiedade e resposta a estímulos térmicos álgicos em animais PSP. Ratos machos Wistar com 90 dias de vida foram privados de sono paradoxal por 96 horas, sendo a resposta álgica avaliada pelo tempo de retirada da pata traseira em ratos expostos à placa quente (46C). A avaliação do nível de ansiedade dos animais foi feita através do teste do campo aberto, através da relação entre a permanência nos quadrantes centrais e nos quadrantes periféricos, e também pelo teste do labirinto em cruz elevado, sendo quantificado o número de vezes que o animal entrava nos braços abertos do labirinto e o tempo gasto pelo animal nos mesmos braços. Os animais PSP apresentaram aumento no índice de locomoção em relação aos animais controles (+314,8%, p<0,05), aumento no número de entradas (+257,1%) e no tempo gasto nos braços abertos do labirinto em cruz elevado (+319,2%, p<0,05), e redução na latência de retirada da pata traseira da placa quente (-64,2%, p<0,05). O fármaco diazepam, não influenciou nas respostas apresentadas pelos animais PSP no teste de campo aberto e no teste da placa quente, mas influenciou nas repostas apresentadas por estes animais no teste do labirinto em cruz elevado tanto no tempo (+308, p<0,05), quanto no número de entradas (+316,6%, p<0,05). O fármaco ácido acetilsalicílico promoveu uma diminuição do índice de locomoção nos animais PSP submetidos ao teste de campo aberto que também foram administrados com o diazepam (-99,5%, p<0,05). No teste da placa quente o ácido acetilsalicílico não apresentou nenhuma influência na percepção de dor nos animais. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicam que o método de privação de sono paradoxal por período de 96 horas não induz ansiedade, e a redução farmacológica dos níveis de ansiedade não influencia na resposta álgica induzida pela privação de sono paradoxal. / Paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) causes several neurochemical and behavioral changes related to alterations in neurotransmitters systems. Increased responses to nociceptive stimuli have been reported in animals deprived of this phase of sleep. The commonly used methods of PSD have been linked to the generation of anxiety in animals, and hyperalgesia could, therefore, be due to anxiety stimuli generated by the method. The purpose of this study was to investigate anxiety induced by the PSD method and the effect of the anxiolytic drug diazepam and analgesic drug acetylsalicylic acid on anxiety and response to thermal nociceptive stimuli. Male Wistar rats of 90 days of life were deprived from sleep for 96 hours and submitted to the nociceptive test on the hot plate (46C). The assessment of anxiety level of animals was performed using the open field test, where they made the link between residence in central and peripheral squares, and also by test of the elevated plus maze, whose endpoint was to quantify the number of times that the animal entered in the open arms of the maze and measure the time spent by the animal in the same arms. PSD animals showed increased rate of locomotion compared to control animals (+314.8%, p <0.05), longer time spent in open arms of elevated plus maze (+319.2%, p <0.05), largest number of entries in the same arms of the maze (+257.1%) and reductions in latency to withdraw the hind paw of the hot plate (-64.2%, p <0.05). The drug diazepam, did not influence the responses made by PSD animals in the open field and hot plate test, but influenced the answers given by these animals in test of the elevated plus maze in both time (+308, p <0.05), or the number of entries (+316.6%, p <0.05). The drug acetylsalicylic acid caused a decline in the rate of locomotion in PSD animals subjected to the open field test that also was administered with diazepam (-99.5%, p <0.05). The results of this study indicated that the method of paradoxical sleep deprivation does not appear to be anxiogenic. The results obtained in this work showed that the PSD method does not induce anxiety and the pharmacological reduction in anxiety does not interfere in the increased algic response induced by paradoxical sleep deprivation.

Le sommeil est un état de vigilance présent dans la plupart des espèces animales et impliqué dans de nombreuses fonctions. Le sommeil paradoxal (SP), un des deux stades principaux de sommeil serait étroitement associé à la régulation des émotions. Cette régulation pourrait faciliter la consolidation de la mémoire émotionnelle, et paradoxalement diminuer le tonus émotionnel associé à cette mémoire. Nous proposons que l'hypothèse selon laquelle les premières heures de SP post-apprentissage soient importantes pour la consolidation à très long terme de la mémoire de peur. Pour cela, nous avons effectué un conditionnement de peur au contexte chez la souris suivi de 6h de privation spécifique de SP, et testé la mémoire récente (24 heures) et ancienne (30 jours) des animaux. Notre analyse du comportement révèle une altération spécifique des performances mnésiques des animaux privés de SP lors du rappel de la mémoire ancienne, pointant pour la première fois un rôle du SP post-apprentissage dans la consolidation à très long terme de la mémoire.Nous avons réalisé chez ces animaux une étude immunohistochimique visant à évaluer l'activité des populations neuronales de différentes aires corticales et sous-corticales lors du rappel. Pour cela, nous avons analysé l'expression du gène d'expression précoce zif268. Nos résultats révèlent une importance majeure du SP post-apprentissage dans la mise en place du processus de réorganisation systémique observé lors de la consolidation à très long terme.Nous avons ainsi montré que les premières heures de SP post-apprentissage peuvent être cruciales dans la régulation à très long terme d'une mémoire de la peur. Nous avons également montré que cette fonction du SP passerait par une initialisation précoce de la réorganisation à long terme des réseaux mnésiques, et notamment par une diminution homéostatique de l'activité dans les régions cérébrales impliquées dans l'expression des émotions / Sleep is a vigilance state observed in most of animal species and is involved in many functions. Paradoxical sleep (PS, or Rapid Eye Movement Sleep), an essential sleep state, seems to be closely linked to emotion regulation. It seems that one aspect of this function could be due to the potentiating role of PS in emotional long-term memory, and the paradoxical decrease in the emotional tone associated to the memorized event. We tested the hypothesis that the first hours of post-learning PS could be important for remote long term emotional memory in mice. We performed a contextual fear conditioning followed by 6 hours of PS deprivation, and assessed the memory at recent (24 hours) and remote (30 days) recall. Our behavioral analysis reveals a specific alteration of memory performances when animals were tested at remote delays, revealing for the first time a role of post-learning PS in remote memory consolidation.We then performed immunohistochemistry analysis of neuronal activation during memory recall by assessing the expression of the immediate early gene zif268 in a large number of areas involved in emotional memory processing. Our results reveal a major role of post-learning PS in the regulation of neuronal activity taking place during remote memory consolidation.Thus we show that the first few hours of post-learning PS can be crucial for the regulation remote fear memory. These results suggest that this PS function could be due to the early initialization of remote reorganization of memory networks, acting notably by a homeostatic decrease of neuronal activity in areas involved in the expression of emotions

Les mécanismes neurologiques responsables du déclenchement et de l’homéostasie du sommeil, et du sommeil paradoxal (SP) en particulier, sont l’objet d’un nombre toujours plus important d’études du fait notamment de l’attention croissante portée aux pathologies associées. Les travaux rapportés dans cette thèse s’inscrivent parfaitement dans cette dynamique puisqu’ils ont pour objectif de mieux caractériser les populations neuronales mises en jeu dans la régulation du SP ainsi que leurs interactions. Dans cette optique, nous avons combiné différentes approches techniques complémentaires à savoir : neuroanatomie fonctionnelle, polysomnographie et pharmacologie sur animal libre de se mouvoir. Nous avons ainsi pu démontrer pour la première fois la nature glutamatergique des neurones du SLD, région pontique jouant un rôle central dans la mise en place du SP. De plus, s’il est généralement admis que ces neurones du SLD sont sous le contrôle de neurones GABAergiques situés au niveau de la partie ventrolatérale de la substance grise périaqueducale (VLPAG), le contrôle de ces derniers est encore soumis à controverse. Les résultats que nous avons obtenus suggèrent fortement que l’aire latérale de l’hypothalamus (LH) serait responsable de ce contrôle et donc de celui du SP. En effet, la LH est l’afférence majeure à la VLPAG activée lors d’une hypersomnie de SP. En outre, son inactivation par application locale de muscimol entraine la disparition totale du SP et l’activation des neurones GABAergiques de la VLPAG projetant sur le SLD. En parallèle, nous avons étudié le rôle du noyau réticulé paragigantocellulaire dorsal (DPGi) dans la genèse du SP. Bien que le DPGi fût déjà connu pour être responsable de l’inhibition du locus coeruleus (LC) durant les phases de SP, nous apportons ici un certain nombre d’arguments suggérant que le DPGi pourrait être responsable de l’inhibition, non seulement du LC, mais également de l’ensemble des neurones adrénergiques et noradrénergiques. Cela suggère donc que ce noyau joue également un rôle majeur dans la régulation du SP. Les données rapportées dans cette thèse permettent donc de mieux appréhender les mécanismes neuronaux contrôlant la survenue et la régulation du SP. En particulier, ils apportent de nouvelles données en faveur d’un rôle central de l’hypothalamus dans la régulation du SP puisqu’il constituerait le générateur principal de cet état. / A growing number of studies investigate the neurological mechanisms responsible for paradoxical sleep (PS) genesis and homeostasis. The work presented in this thesis aims to better characterize the neuronal populations implicated in PS regulation and their interrelations. To this purpose, we combined complementary techniques such as functional neuroanatomy, polysomnography and pharmacological approaches on freely moving animals. We thus demonstrated for the first time the glutamatergic nature of SLD neurons which are known to be responsible for muscle atonia and cortical activation characterizing PS. Moreover it is well established that SLD neurons are inhibited by GABAergic cells located inside the ventrolateral part of the periaqueductal gray (VLPAG). Consequently, the control of theses neurons, a crucial step for PS genesis is still a matter of debate. The results we obtained strongly suggest that the lateral hypothalamus (LH) would be responsible for this control and thus for PS. Indeed, LH is the main activated afferent to VLPAG during PS-hypersomnia and its inhibition by muscimol application totally suppresses PS and activates VLPAG GABAergic cells projecting to SLD. We also analyzed the implication of the dorsal part of the paragigantocellular reticular nucleus in PS regulation. Even if it was known that DPGi is responsible for locus coeruleus (LC) inactivation during PS, we brought new evidences showing that DPGi would actually inhibits all noradrenergic and adrenergic cells and not only LC suggesting that DPGi could be of importance for PS genesis. All our data allow us to better understand the PS neuronal network and suggest that, contrary to the classical view that PS is generated by the pons, LH would be the primary PS generator.

Le LPGi est la région bulbaire qui contient le plus grand nombre de neurones exprimant Fos pendant l’hypersomnie de SP. 10% de ces neurones Fos dans le LPGi projettent au locus coereleus, une région SP-Off. Récemment, Sapin et al. ont montré que 70% des neurones exprimant Fos pendant l’hypersomnie de SP sont de nature GABAergique. Notre hypothèse est que le LPGi contient des neurones de nature SP-On dont une partie participerait à l’inhibition des noyaux SP-Off. Nous cherchons à vérifier cette hypothèse, d’autre part à identifier les régions afférentes au LPGi actives au cours du SP et enfin, à identifier les projections du LPGi. Nous avons utilisé l’enregistrement extracellulaire des neurones du LPGi chez le rat vigile en contention stéréotaxique. Nous avons couplé cette technique avec le protocole de privation/ rebond de SP par la technique de la piscine. L’analyse du taux de décharge des neurones enregistrés au sein du LPGi montre que celui-ci contient trois types neuronaux différents (SP-On, SP-Off et indifférents). L’analyse des données neuroanatomiques montre que l’afférence majeure du LPGi, active au cours du SP, réside dans le SLD. Le LPGi est donc bien impliqué dans le réseau du SP car il contient des neurones faisant varier leur taux de décharge avec les différents états de vigilance. Le SLD, considéré comme la structure exécutive du SP, de nature glutamatergique, exciterait le LPGi au cours du SP. Ce dernier, de nature GABAergique, inhiberait le noyau moteur facial. Ce travail met pour la première fois en évidence l’activité de la voie SLD-bulbe rachidien ventrolatéral et suggère que le LPGi participe en partie à l’atonie musculaire caractéristique du SP / The LPGi is a ventrolateral medullary area that contains the highest number of Fos-labelled neurons during a paradoxical sleep (PS) hypersomnia. Ten % of these Fos neurons project to the locus coeruleus, a PS-Off area and 70% of these Fos neurons are GABAergic. Our hypothesis is that the LPGi contains PS-On neurons involved in the inhibition of the PS-Off nuclei. Our aim was to check this hypothesis by recording the unit activity of the LPGi neurons, by identifying the afferent areas to the LPGi and determining its projection areas activated during PS. We have used extracellular unit recordings in the unanethetized head-restrained rat model and coupled this method to a selective PS deprivation using the flower-pot method. The analysis of the firing rate of the LPGi neurons showed that there are three different groups, SP-On, SP-Off and indifferent neurons. Moreover, the SLD, a PS-On area, is the main afferent to the LPGi activated during PS rebound. Our conclusion is that the LPGi is involved in the network generating PS. The SLD, considered as the PS executive area through glutamatergic neurons, may excite the LPGi during this state. The LPGi, through its GABAergic neurons, may inhibit the facial motor nucleus. This work provides for the first time evidence for a SLD-ventrolateral medulla pathway and suggests that the LPGi participates in the muscular atonia occurring during PS

Chez les mammifères, l’alternance des états de vigilance nécessite la mise en jeu de mécanismes spéci ques qui facilitent les transitions entre l’éveil, le sommeil lent (SL) et le sommeil paradoxal (SP). L’objectif de cette thèse s’inscrit dans l’optique de disséquer chez la souris les processus neuronaux contrôlant l’alternance physiologique entre ces trois états de vigilance. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons tout d’abord démontré par des approches complémentaires ex vivo et in vivo que le glucose peut favoriser l’endormissement par son action excitatrice directe sur les neurones promoteurs du SL localisés dans l’aire préoptique ventrolatérale (VLPO). Nous avons ensuite, par deux approches méthodologiques di érentes et complémentaires, contribué à préciser le rôle physiologique des neurones exprimant l’hormone de mélano-concentration (MCH) dans la régulation du cycle veille-sommeil, démontrant ainsi qu’en plus de faciliter le déclenchement et le maintien du SP lorsqu’ils sont activés, ils contrôlent certains aspects du SL en favorisant, au cours SL, un SL plus profond ainsi que la terminaison des épisodes de SL. Forts de ces nouveaux résultats supportant une contribution des neurones MCH à la régulation du SL, nous avons déterminé une voie potentielle pouvant sous-tendre cette fonction physiologique à travers leurs projections efférentes sur le VLPO. Nos résultats préliminaires indiquent que la stimulation optogénétique des axones des neurones MCH dans le VLPO favorise le déclenchement d’un état de transition entre SL et SP sans pour autant conduire au SP / In mammals, alternating between vigilance states requires some speci c processes that facilitate transitions between wake, Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS), and Paradoxical Sleep (PS). The objective of this thesis was to decipher, in mice, the neuronal mechanisms that control the alternation between these three vigilance states. During thus thesis, we first demonstrated using complementary ex vivo and in vivo approaches that glucose can facilitate sleep induction by directly exciting sleep- promoting neurons located within the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO). Then, by developing two different and complementary approaches, we contributed to clarify the physiological role of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH)-expressing neurons in sleep-wake regulation. Indeed, in addition to their PS-promoting effect when activated, we found that MCH neurons also contribute to the regulation of some aspects of SWS regulation by favouring the appearance of a deeper SWS and facilitating SWS episodes termination. These new results supporting a role of MCH neurons to SWS regulation led us to investigate a putative pathway underlying such an effect through efferent projections from MCH neurons to the VLPO. Preliminary results suggest that the optogenetic stimulation of axons from MCH neurons within the VLPO could facilitate the appearance of a transition state between SWS and PS without triggering PS onset