Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) (Hym.: Braconidae), como outros cenobiontes, é capaz de regular seu hospedeiro, criando um ambiente que sustenta e promove o desenvolvimento de suas larvas, comumente em detrimento do hospedeiro. Substâncias derivadas do trato reprodutivo das fêmeas (proteínas ovarianas, veneno e polidnavírus) são injetadas no hospedeiro, afetando a resposta imune e outros processos fisiológicos com o propósito de regular os níveis hormonais, nutrição e comportamento. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o papel dessas substâncias no crescimento e desenvolvimento de Diatraea saccharalis (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), e avaliar como o parasitismo afeta a resposta imune do hospedeiro. Todas as substâncias derivadas da fêmea foram obtidas após a dissecação do parasitóide, através da coleta do reservatório de veneno ou dos ovários (proteínas ovarianas e polidnavírus) em tampão resfriado. As secreções foram processadas adequadamente e injetadas logo após a coleta. O veneno e as proteínas ovarianas + polidnavírus (PDV) foram injetados juntos ou separadamente em lagartas entre 0-12h do 6º instar. O efeito de cada um dos componentes isolados do parasitóide no desenvolvimento e crescimento do hospedeiro foi avaliado através de observações no ganho de peso, duração e viabilidade da fase larval e pupal. Os efeitos do parasitismo na resposta imune do hospedeiro foram avaliados tanto ao nível celular, através da contagem do número total de hemócitos e capacidade de encapsulação, como ao nível bioquímico, medindo-se a ativação da profenoloxidase e produção de óxido nítrico na hemolinfa das lagartas de D. saccharalis em diferentes estágios de desenvolvimento do parasitóide (0, 1, 3, 5, 7 e 9 dias após o parasitismo). As proteínas ovarianas do parasitóide e o PDV sozinho, ou co-injetado com o veneno, suspenderam o desenvolvimento larval do hospedeiro, enquanto que o veneno, sozinho, afetou o processo de metamorfose. A resposta imune do hospedeiro também foi afetada por C. flavipes, de maneira dependente do tempo. Lagartas parasitadas apresentaram declínio no número total de hemócitos a partir do 3º dia e a capacidade de encapsulação foi afetada ao longo do desenvolvimento do parasitóide. A atividade da fenoloxidase do hospedeiro foi alterada apenas no final do desenvolvimento imaturo do parasitóide, enquanto que o óxido nítrico foi afetado nas 24 h iniciais após parasitismo. / Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) (Hym., Braconidae), as other koinobionts, is capable of regulating the host development to produce an suitable host environment to sustain and promote its own larval development at the host expenses. Female-derived substances from the reproductive tract (ovarian proteins, venom, polydnavirus) are injected into the host, affecting the host immune response and other physiological processes aiming to regulate the host hormone levels, nutrition and behavior. Our goal was to evaluate the role of these substances on Diatraea saccharalis (F.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) growth and development, and how the parasitism affects the host immune response. All female-derived substances were collected after parasitoid dissection by collecting the venom reservoir or the ovaries (ovarian proteins and polydnavirus). Dissections were carried out in ice-cold buffer, collected tissues were processed accordingly and the desired substances injected immediately after collection. Venom and ovarian proteins+polydnavirus (PDV) were injected jointly and separated in 0-12 hold 6th instars of D. saccharalis. The effect of these substances on host development and growth was evaluated by measuring the host weight gain, larval and pupal survivorship and developmental time. The effects of the parasitism on the host immune response was evaluated either at the cellular level, by measuring the total hemocyte count and the encapsulation capacity, and at the biochemical level, by measuring the prophenoloxidase activity and nitric oxide levels at different stages of parasitoid development (0, 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 days after parasitism). Parasitoid ovarian proteins and PDV alone or co-injected with the venom arrested the host larval development, while the venom by itself only affected the host metamorphosis process. The host immune response was also affected by C. flavipes at a time-dependent manner. The total hemocyte count dropped at day 3 of parasitism, while the host encapsulation capacity was reduced during parasitoid development. The host prophenoloxidase activity was also affected mainly towards the end of parasitoid larval development, while the nitric oxide at the first 24 h after parasitism.

Orientadores: Mohamed Ezz El-Din Mostafa Habib, João Vasconcellos Neto / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-25T03:26:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Maioralli_CamilaPozzo_M.pdf: 1303903 bytes, checksum: 6b1377da2e05d3892bdd803735875771 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: Embora os agroecossistemas resultem da ação humana sobre os ecossistemas naturais, sua estrutura e funcionamento se matem a partir de princípios e processos ecológicos. Dadas as externalidades negativas causadas pela agricultura convencional, alguns setores acadêmicos e movimentos em prol da agricultura de base ecológica buscam por um novo paradigma de agricultura, pautado na sustentabilidade. Dentre as práticas utilizadas pela agricultura de base ecológica para o controle de pragas está o controle biológico, incluindo o uso dos himenópteros parasitoides. Estes são responsáveis por grande parte da regulação populacional de insetos fitófagos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a fauna de himenópteros parasitoides associada a um agroecossistema de manejo orgânico, e comparar três áreas com estruturas distintas ¿ bananal, horta e mata ¿ em relação à diversidade de famílias de himenópteros parasitoides presentes em cada área. Foram realizadas coletas mensais de janeiro a março de 2013, com o uso de armadilhas Malaise. Foram coletados 1990 indivíduos, distribuídos em 8 superfamílias e 25 famílias. As famílias mais abundantes foram Braconidae, Ichneumonidae e Figitidae. O maior número de indivíduos e a maior riqueza de famílias foram obtidos na área da horta. O maior número de famílias raras foi obtido na área de mata. As três áreas apresentaram valores muito próximos para os índices de diversidade, o que indica que as duas áreas manejadas, do bananal e da horta, apresentam diversidade razoável de famílias de himenópteros parasitoides, tomando como referência a área da mata. Bananal e horta apresentaram maior similaridade segundo o índice de Morisita, possivelmente por ambas as áreas servirem como área de forrageamento para os parasitoides. Segundo o índice de Bray-Curtis, bananal e mata apresentaram maior similaridade, talvez devido ao bananal apresentar estrutura mais complexa e mais semelhante à área de vegetação nativa, o que possibilita melhores condições para as famílias mais dominantes de himenópteros parasitoides. Os dados a respeito das famílias de himenópteros parasitoides obtidos neste estudo indicam que sistemas agrícolas mais diversificados e com manejo de base ecológica são importantes ferramentas na conservação da biodiversidade / Abstract: Although agroecosystems are a result of human action on natural ecosystems, their structure and function are maintained by means of ecological principles and processes. Due to the negative externalities caused by conventional agriculture, some ecologically-based agriculture researches and movements seek for a new paradigm of agriculture, based on sustainability. The biological control is one of the practices used by ecologically-based agriculture for pest control, including the use of parasitoid Hymenoptera. Such parasitic insects are responsible for a significant regulation of herbivorous insect populations. In this work we studied the parasitic Hymenoptera fauna associated with an organic managed agroecosystem, comparing the abundance and diversity of the hymenopterous families in three different ecosystems (banana plantation, horticulture area and forest). From January to March 2013, insect samples were collected monthly, using Malaise traps. We collected 1990 individuals, distributed in 8 superfamilies and 25 families of parasitic Hymenoptera. The most abundant families were Braconidae, Ichneumonidae and Figitidae. The largest number of individuals and richer families were obtained in the horticulture area. The largest number of rare families was obtained in the forest. The areas presented very close values for diversity indices, indicating that the two managed areas, banana and horticulture, have considerable parasitic Hymenoptera families diversity, in comparison to the forest. Banana plantation and horticulture area showed higher similarity according to Morisita index, possibly because both areas serve as foraging area for the parasitoids. According to the Bray- Curtis index, banana plantation and forest showed greater similarity, perhaps due to the more complex structure of both situations, and thus can provide better shelter conditions for the most dominant families of parasitic Hymenoptera. The data about families of parasitic Hymenoptera obtained in this study indicate that more diversified and ecologically-based agricultural management systems are important tools for insect biodiversity conservation / Mestrado / Ecologia / Mestra em Ecologia

La consanguinité est connue par les biologistes pour diminuer la valeur sélective des individus en diminuant par exemple leur survie ou leur fertilité. De ce fait, la sélection naturelle devrait favoriser l'apparition de comportements permettant l'évitement des accouplements entre apparentes pour limiter les conséquences néfastes dues à la dépression de consanguinité. Cette dépression de consanguinité est particulièrement visible chez les Hyménoptères avec un système de détermination du sexe appelé single-locus Complementary Sex Determination (sl-CSD), où elle amène à la production de males diploïdes non viables ou stériles. Mon travail de thèse a ainsi consiste à étudier le phénomène d'évitement d'accouplements entre apparentes dans des populations naturelles d'un hyménoptère parasitoïde avec sl-CSD, Venturia canescens, ainsi que des signaux utilisés par les femelles pour déterminer l'apparentement qu'elles ont avec les individus qu'elles rencontrent. Nous avons d'abord étudié le lien unissant type d'habitat (continental, iles ou laboratoire), diversité génétique et production de males diploïdes dans 11 populations de V. canescens. En effet, un cadre théorique nomme "Vortex d'extinction du aux males diploïdes" prédit une corrélation négative entre isolations des populations, diversité génétique et production de males diploïdes pouvant amener à l'extinction de populations d'Hyménoptères. Nous avons ainsi démontré une corrélation négative entre diversité génétique et production de males diploïdes dans les populations isolées de V. canescens. Ensuite, il a été montré précédemment que les femelles de cette espèce étaient capables de discriminer les males qui leur étaient apparentes et d'éviter les accouplements entre apparentes en laboratoire. Nous nous sommes ainsi intéressés à ce phénomène d'évitement d'accouplement entre apparentes dans des populations naturelles grâce au génotypage de 450 individus du terrain et leur descendants. Nous avons montré que les femelles toléraient les accouplements entre apparentes sur le terrain ainsi qu'en laboratoire en présence de plusieurs males, nous permettant de mettre en lumière l'importance des conditions environnementales sur le choix du partenaire sexuel. Nous nous sommes enfin concentrés sur le système de reconnaissance des apparentes au niveau mécanistique en étudiant les signaux chimiques utilisés par les femelles pour reconnaitre leurs apparentes dans deux contextes écologiques différents, le choix du partenaire sexuel et l'évitement du superparasitisme lors de la ponte. Nous avons ainsi montré des similitudes entre les compositions chimiques de ces deux signaux mais aussi qu'ils n'étaient pas interchangeables entre les deux contextes écologiques étudiés. Au final, les résultats obtenus apportent un nouvel éclairage sur les conditions nécessaires à l'apparition d'un évitement d'accouplements entre apparentes dans des populations naturelles ainsi que sur les signaux utilisés lors de la reconnaissance de parentèle chez un hyménoptère parasitoïde / Inbreeding is well known by biologists to lower the fitness of individuals by or example decreasing survival or fertility. Therefore, natural selection should favour behaviours preventing the reproduction of genetically-related individuals or mitigating harmful consequences, called inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression is particularly visible in Hymenoptera with a sex-determination system called single-locus Complementary Sex Determination (sl-CSD), where it leads to the production of diploid males that are either unviable or sterile. My PhD work has thus been devoted to the study of sib-mating avoidance in natural populations of a parasitoid with sl-CSD, Venturia canescens, and to understand the cues used by females recognize their kin. We first studied the link between habitat type (continental, island or captive), genetic diversity and diploid male production in 11 V. canescens populations. Indeed, a theoretical framework called "Diploid male extinction vortex" predict a negative correlation between populations’ isolation, genetic diversity and diploid male production that could lead to the extinction of hymenopteran populations.We actually showed a negative correlation between genetic diversity and diploid male production in isolated populations. Previous studies have furthermore demonstrated kin discrimination and sib-mating avoidance by V. canescens females in the laboratory. We therefore studied the sibmating avoidance behaviour in natural populations of this species by genotyping more than 450 wild individuals and their offsprings. We demonstrated that females tolerated inbreeding in the wild as well as in the laboratory when several males were present. We highlighted the importance of environmental conditions on mate choice. At last, we were interested in the kin recognition system and researched the chemical cues used by females in two ecological contexts, mate choice and superparasitism avoidance. This allowed us to identify similarities in the composition of the two chemical signals and that they were not interchangeable between the two studied ecological contexts. In the end, the results we obtained shed new light on the necessary conditions for the apparition of sib-mating avoidance in natural populations, as well as on the cues used for kin recognition in a parasitoid

Lytopylus is species-rich genus of Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Agathidinae), but limited information of the genus has been published. Morphological, molecular, and ecological data were compared to resolve the species limits of Lytopylus reared from caterpillars collected the Area de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in Costa Rica. Molecular data were initially used to hypothesize species limits, and morphological and host use data were employed to make a final decision when molecular data was indecisive, e.g., when the genetic difference between species was slight. Thirty-two new species are described with image plates of each species. Phylogenetic analyses of the barcode region of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) mitochondrial gene was conducted using Neighbor-Joining (NJ) and the Maximum likelihood (ML) analysis. A concatenated COI+28S dataset was analyzed by ML analysis to elucidate evolutionary patterns in ecological characters.

The African bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a polyphagous pest that attacks many crops in sub-Saharan Africa. The pest is currently managed through chemical control, and by planting Bt-transgenic cotton. Trichogrammatoidea lutea Girault (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is an indigenous egg parasitoid of H. armigera in southern Africa. The study was undertaken to determine the potential of T. lutea as a biological control agent for augmentative releases as an alternative to chemical control, and to pave the way for the development of a mass-rearing method. The biology of T. lutea was examined in the laboratory on H. armigera, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe), and Cadra (formerly Ephestia) cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). The objectives of the study were to determine (i) the exposure time of UV-irradiation required for killing the embryos of the hosts and the effect of UV-irradiated eggs on life history parameters of T. lutea, (ii) which host(s) and temperature(s) (18, 21, 24, 27, 30 and 35 °C) are suitable for mass-rearing of T. lutea, and (iii) the longevity and age-related reproductive biology of T. lutea on H. armigera. Findings of this study showed that 13 minutes of UV-irradiation were sufficient to kill embryos of all three host species. Life history parameters were not influenced by UV-irradiation but by host species. Parasitism, number of progeny per parasitized egg, proportion of females, and developmental time of T. lutea aried on different host species at temperatures ranging from 18 to 30 °C. Trichogrammatoidea lutea did not develop at 35 °C. Overall parasitism by T. lutea was higher on H. armigera and Cadra cautella compared to Chilo partellus. The number of progeny per parasitized egg was highest on H. armigera compared to Cadra cautella and Chilo partellus. The proportion of females was highest on Chilo partellus, intermediate on Cadra cautella, and lowest on H. armigera. For all species and temperatures tested, parasitism and number of progeny per parasitized egg by T. lutea was highest on H. armigera at 27 °C. The lower threshold for development of T. lutea on all hosts was approximately 12 °C. Female T. lutea parasitized eggs of H. armigera soon after eclosion, with the highest parasitism achieved on the day of eclosion. Though T. lutea parasitized eggs for up to 14 days, it may not be economically viable to keep them in cultures for more than three days since progeny became male biased three days after eclosion. The average longevity of female and male T. lutea was 9 and 6 days, respectively. The life table parameters of T. lutea, the net replacement rate (Ro), mean generation time (T), and instantaneous rate of population increase (rm) were 25.5, 9.79, and 0.33, respectively. The timing of inundative releases of T. lutea must be synchronised with the time that eggs of H. armigera are abundant in the field. The results of this study indicate that T. lutea is a good candidate for further testing for augmentative biological control of H. armigera in the field. If successful, T. lutea may provide opportunities for expanding tactics in the management of H. armigera in southern Africa. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Les parasitoïdes sont des insectes dont le cycle de vie se divise en (i) un stade adulte libre durant lequel la femelle dépose des œufs dans, sur ou à proximité des hôtes et (ii) des stades immatures parasites durant lesquels les larves se développent en consommant leur hôte. Ils sont impliqués dans la régulation de la population de leur(s) hôte(s) et sont largement utilisés en lutte biologique pour réduire les dégâts causés par des ravageurs de cultures dans les agroécosystèmes. L’intensité de cette régulation dépend notamment de la gamme d’hôtes du parasitoïde c.à.d. le nombre d’espèces hôtes différentes dans lesquels il est capable de compléter son développement. La gamme d’hôtes théorique d’un parasitoïde a été largement étudiée et est déterminée par sa capacité à localiser, reconnaître et parasiter son hôte (gamme d'hôtes comportemental) et/ou sa capacité à utiliser les ressources de l’hôte et à contourner ses défenses immunitaires (gamme d'hôtes physiologiques). Cependant, les caractéristiques biotiques et abiotiques environnementales, pouvant potentiellement impacter les traits comportementaux et physiologiques des parasitoïdes et finalement la gamme d’hôtes théorique de ces derniers, ont été très peu étudié. C’est dans ce contexte que j’ai développé ma thèse avec pour but principal d’étudier l’impact de différents facteurs écologiques sur la gamme d’hôtes des parasitoïdes. Pour cela, j’ai choisi comme modèle d’étude les parasitoïdes de pucerons, largement utilisés en lutte biologique, et j’ai étudié le rôle (1) des goulots d’étranglement génétique intervenant lors de l’introduction de petites populations de parasitoïdes dans de nouveaux environnements (par exemple, en lutte biologique classique), (2) de la phylogénie des hôtes et des plantes hôtes, (3) des effets bottom-up du stress hydrique chez les plantes hôtes des pucerons, (4) de la relation entre (i) la qualité des pucerons en tant qu’hôte pour la larve de parasitoïde et (ii) la qualité du puceron en tant que source de nourriture (miellat) pour l’adulte et (5) des interactions indirectes induites par la présence d’hôtes alternatifs sub-optimaux, sur la gamme d’hôte théorique des parasitoïdes. La phylogénie des hôtes et des plantes hôtes ont un effet direct sur la gamme d’hôtes des parasitoïdes tandis que les goulots d’étranglement génétique, les effets bottom-up de la plante, la nutrition des parasitoïdes adultes et les interactions indirectes semblent impacter seulement indirectement la gamme d’hôtes des parasitoïdes de pucerons via une modulation de la fitness et/ou taux de parasitisme. Chaque environnement étant différent, l’'étude de l'impact des facteurs écologiques sur la gamme d'hôtes des parasitoïdes est déterminante ; ce travail de thèse a permis de mieux comprendre certains mécanismes impliqués dans le fonctionnement des communautés de parasitoïdes dans les écosystèmes, ainsi que dans l’optimisation possible de programmes de lutte biologique. / Parasitoids are insects whose adult females deposit eggs in, on or near hosts and immatures stages develop by host consumption. They are involved in host population regulation and are largely used in biological control to reduce the damages caused by pests in agroecosystems. Their ability to control pest populations mainly depends on their host range i.e., the number of host species enabling offspring production. The parasitoid host range has been largely studied and may depend on its ability to localize, select and sting their hosts (behavioral host range) and/or its ability to consume and circumvent the hosts physiological defenses (physiological host range). However, each ecosystem has his own biotic and abiotic characteristics that can modulate both behavioral and physiological traits of parasitoids but they implication in the host range modulation have rarely been tested. In this context, the objective of my thesis was to evaluate the impact of different ecological factors on parasitoid host ranges. More specifically, I studied the impact of (i) the genetic bottleneck due to the introduction of small parasitoid population in a new area (through classical biological control notably), (ii) the host and host plant phylogenies, (iii) the bottom-up effects of drought stress, (iv) the relationship between the quality of the host and its ability to produce food for the parasitoid and (v) the parasitoid-mediated indirect interactions between unsuitable and suitable hosts, on the aphid parasitoid host range (high implication in biological control). We demonstrated that the aphids and host plant phylogenies are strongly involved in shaping the ecological host range of parasitoids whereas the other factors tested may only modulate the parasitoid fitness and parasitism rate; which may, finally, indirectly modulate the parasitoid host range. Studied the impact of ecological factors on parasitoid host range seems determinant; this thesis enables to better understand some mechanisms involved in parasitoid community functioning and to potentially optimize biological control programs.

The family Megastigmidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), one of the hymenopteran parasitoid families, is unique in containing many species with phytophagous larval feeding strategy. A number of species of different genera are seed-feeders and the genus Bortesia is even capable of inducing galls. The family Megastigmidae is found mainly in the Australian region but a few genera/species groups are widespread throughout different areas, mainly in the Oriental and the Holarctic region. The main goal of this study was to map phylogenetic relationships among genera and clarify the following: the overall number of transitions between a parasitoid and a phytophagous way of life, the ancestral feeding strategy of the family, the evolution of feeding strategies in the genus Megastigmus, and the geographical area of origin of the family. The questions were tested based on a phylogeny reconstructed by a state-of-the-art method - sequencing of "Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs)" - using 100 specimens of Megastigmidae from 11 out of 12 currently valid genera selected taking into consideration their feeding strategy and biogeographical origin. The final dataset contains 1210 loci (570,000 base pairs in length) and most nodes are supported by bootstrap value 100. The results show that the family can be divided into 3...

Les réponses comportementales des insectes restent peu connues dès lors qu'on s'éloigne de leur optimum thermique. Les conditions plus extrêmes et variables de température projetées pour les prochaines décennies devraient pousser les organismes à la limite de leur capacité de fonctionnement, dans la mesure où ils ne s'adaptent pas rapidement aux changements. Les réponses comportementales à la température peuvent être kinétiques (résultant de l'accélération/ralentissement des réactions chimiques de l'organisme en fonction de la température) ou intégrées (résultant de l'intégration des informations thermo-sensorielles par le système nerveux central de l'insecte), adaptatives ou contraintes. Distinguer entre ces différents types de réponse permettra de mieux comprendre et prédire la réponse des individus aux nouvelles conditions provoquées par les changements climatiques. Les réponses individuelles pourront alors permettent d’anticiper les conséquences sur les populations. Dans cette thèse, plusieurs comportements d'Anaphes listronoti, un parasitoïde des oeufs du charançon de la carotte (Listronotus oregonensis) ont été observés, à l’intérieur de la fenêtre thermique permettant ses activités. Dans un premier temps, il a été montré que le comportement de marche des femelles A. listronoti ne découlait pas simplement d'une réponse kinétique à la température, mais correspondait à une réponse intégrée telle que l'évitement des conditions thermiques froides et la conservation de l'énergie aux températures élevées. Dans un second temps, l'exploitation d'agrégats d’hôtes a été comparée à différentes températures. La stratégie d'exploitation ne variait pas avec la température, mais des contraintes liées à la manipulation de l'hôte et à la détection des messages chimiques à haute température ont été révélées. Ensuite, le comportement de cour et d'accouplement a été observé en fonction de la température. Les températures suboptimales diminuaient le succès d'accouplement, mais pas le transfert de spermatozoïdes lors d’un accouplement. Des contraintes de reconnaissance entre les partenaires sexuels ont également été observées à températures infra- et supra-optimales. Enfin, un modèle de simulation dynamique intégrant le développement des différents stades de l’insecte et les comportements précédemment étudiés a été conceptualisé. Ce modèle permet de combiner les effets de la température sur les comportements d’un individu et les conséquences sur la population de parasitoïdes, ainsi que sur la population de l’hôte. L’ajout des comportements dans les modèles populationnels n’apporte pas forcément de valeur ajoutée, mais il reste essentiel de les considérer, en particulier dans le cadre des changements climatiques. En effet, si les réponses physiologiques telles que celles associées au développement augmentent jusqu'à un maximum d’environ 35°C, la plupart des comportements deviennent sub-optimaux à partir de 30°C, et cessent presque complètement à 35°C. Dans un contexte de changements climatiques, ces résultats permettent de mieux comprendre et potentiellement prédire les réponses individuelles et populationnelles des insectes aux différentes conditions thermiques. / The behavioural responses of insects remain poorly understood once they move away from their thermal optimum. The more extreme and variable temperature conditions projected for the coming decades should, to the extent that insects do not adapt quickly to changes, push organisms to the limit of their ability to function. Behavioural responses to temperature may be kinetic (resulting from the acceleration/slowing down of the organism's chemical reactions as a function of temperature) or integrated (resulting from the integration of thermo-sensory information by the insect's central nervous system), adaptive or constrained. Distinguishing between these different types of response will help to better understand and predict the response of individuals to new conditions caused by climate change. Individual responses can then be used to infer the consequences on populations. In this thesis, several behaviours of Anaphes listronoti, a parasitoid of the carrot weevil (Listronotus oregonensis) eggs, were observed, depending on the thermal window allowing its activities. Firstly, it was shown that the walking behaviour of A. listronoti females was not simply a kinetic response to temperature, but also corresponded to an integrated response such as avoidance of cold thermal conditions and conservation of energy at high temperatures. In a second step, the exploitation of host patches was compared at different temperatures. The exploitation strategy did not vary with temperature, but constraints related to host handling and detection of chemical cues at high temperatures were revealed. Next, courtship and mating behaviour was observed as a function of temperature. Sub-optimal temperatures decreased mating success, but not sperm transfer during mating. Recognition constraints between sexual partners were also observed at infra- and supra-optimal temperatures. Finally, a model integrating the development of the different stages of the insect and the previously studied behaviours was conceptualized. This model makes it possible to combine the effects of temperature on the behaviour of an individual and the consequences on the parasitoid population, as well as the host population. Adding behaviors to population models does not necessarily add value, but it remains essential to consider them, particularly in the context of climate change. Indeed, while physiological responses such as development increase to a maximum of about 35°C, most behaviours become suboptimal from 30°C onwards, and cease almost completely at 35°C. In a context of climate change, these results allow to better understand and potentially predict the individual and population responses of insects to different thermal conditions.

Chalcid wasps (Chalciodiodea) is superfamily within parasitic group of the order Hymenoptera. These insects attack other arthropods. My thesis is focused on phylogeny of selected species groups of the genus Torymus Dalman 1820, whose range of hosts includes mainly gall-forming insect as gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) and gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Using genes 28D2 rDNA, COI and CytB, I constructed phylogenetic trees, which helped with discussing current view on classification of the genus and with inferring new findings about co-evolution with host organisms. Previously established morphological - ecological species groups were not supported by my analyses in many cases. Morphological traits seem to be convergent for many species. They often do not support observed monophyla as apomorphies. On the other hand, ecology and natural habitat of species was common for many branches in my cladograms. It was found out, that recent hosts are not probably original hosts of the group. Adaptive radiation in different habitats is likely to be the phenomenon that stands behind present-day host range of Torymus species. This process could have occurred after swapping to gall midges and gall wasps. Key words: Chalcidoidea, Torymus, phylogeny, parasitoid, host specifity, co-evolution

Les larves des insectes endoparasitoïdes se développent aux dépens d’un hôte, conduisant à sa mort. Leur réussite dépend de leur capacité à neutraliser la réponse immunitaire de l’hôte (formation d’une capsule mélanisée) et réguler sa physiologie, via l’injection de venin lors de l’oviposition. Bien que les parasitoïdes subissent des changements importants de leur environnement, son impact sur la composition protéique de leur venin a rarement été étudié. Dans cette thèse, j’ai étudié (i) l’impact de la température sur l’interaction immunitaire Drosophile – Leptopilina boulardi et la composition de son venin et (ii) le potentiel évolutif du venin en réponse à différents hôtes. La température influe sur le succès parasitaire de L. boulardi via la capacité de l’hôte à encapsuler et/ou celle du parasite à s’échapper de la capsule. De plus, il y a une plasticité de la composition du venin avec la température. Par ailleurs, une 1ère évolution expérimentale a montré une évolution rapide de composition du venin en réponse à la résistance/sensibilité de l’hôte et un coût à la présence de certains facteurs du venin. La 2nd évolution expérimentale sur des espèces hôtes différentes suggère (i) une spécialisation des parasitoïdes sur l’hôte d’élevage et (ii) une évolution différentielle de la réussite parasitaire (virulence) et de la composition du venin. Le venin assurant la réussite sur différents hôtes contiendrait donc une combinaison de protéines « spécialisées » pour chaque hôte et des protéines à effet « large-spectre » sur certains hôtes testés. Les résultats suggèrent un fort potentiel adaptatif des parasitoïdes en réponse à différents paramètres biotiques et abiotiques. / Endoparasitoid wasp larvae develop at the expense of a host, leading to its death. Their success depends on their ability to overcome the immune response of the host (formation of a melanized capsule) and regulate its physiology, via the injection of venom upon oviposition. Although parasitoids undergo significant changes in their environment, its impact on the protein composition of their venom has rarely been tested. In this thesis, I studied (i) the impact of temperature on the Drosophila - Leptopilina boulardi immune interaction and the composition of its venom and (ii) the evolutionary potential of venom in response to different hosts. Temperature influences the parasitic success of L. boulardi via the ability of the host to encapsulate and / or that of the parasite to escape from the capsule. Besides, there is a plasticity of the venom composition with temperature. A first experimental evolution showed a rapid evolution of the composition of the venom in response to the resistance / susceptibility of the host, and a cost to the presence of certain factors of the venom. The second experimental evolution on different host species suggests (i) a specialization of parasitoids on the rearing host and (ii) a differential evolution of the parasite success (virulence) and the composition of the venom. The venom ensuring success on different hosts would therefore contain a combination of "specialized" proteins for each host as well as "broad-spectrum" effect proteins on some hosts tested. The results suggest a strong adaptive potential of parasitoids in response to different biotic and abiotic parameters.