L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier la propagation des ondes acoustiques dans un milieu à double porosité. La caractérisation analytique des modes de vibration d’une plaque à double porosité a été mise en évidence. L’étude théorique a été validée par des mesures ultrasonores expérimentales, sur deux matériaux granulaires à double porosité et des billes de verre à simple porosité, via la détermination d’un coefficient de comparaison théorie-expérience. Ces mesures ont également permis la détection des quatre ondes se propageant dans un matériau à double porosité. Un dispositif expérimental a été développé dans le but de caractériser le phénomène de colmatage qui affecte les milieux poreux lorsqu’ils sont traversés par un fluide chargé de matières en suspension. Ce phénomène affecte par exemple les filtres utilisés dans la clarification des eaux sales. La méthode ultrasonore non destructive a été combinée avec la méthode destructive généralement utilisée dans les laboratoires, pour le suivi du dépôt dans le temps et dans l’espace des trois milieux poreux soumis à l’injection de solutions turbides pendant une longue durée. Des corrélations entre les propriétés acoustiques (vitesse de phase et énergie du signal transmis) et la variation de la porosité du milieu en conséquence du dépôt sont obtenues. L’ensemble des résultats montre un bon accord entre les deux méthodes. / The aim of this thesis is to study the propagation of acoustic waves in a double porosity medium. The analytical characterization of the vibration modes of a double porosity plate has been studied. The theoretical study was validated by experimental ultrasonic measurements, on two granular materials with double porosity and single porosity glass beads, by the determination of a theory-experiment comparison coefficient. These measurements also allowed the detection of the four waves propagating in a double porosity medium. An experimental device has been developed for the purpose of characterizing the clogging phenomenon which affects the porous media when traversed by a fluid loaded with suspended particles. This phenomenon affects for example the filters used in the clarification of dirty waters. The non-destructive ultrasonic method was combined with the destructive method generally used in laboratories, for monitoring the deposition in time and space of the three porous media subjected to the injection of turbid solutions for a long time. Correlations between the acoustic properties (phase velocity and energy of the transmitted signal) and the variation of the porosity of the medium as a consequence of the deposition are obtained. All results show a good agreement between the two methods.

Particle-laden turbulent flow through a straight square duct at Reτ = 300 is studied using direct numerical simulation (DNS) and Lagrangian particle tracking. A parallelized 3-D particle tracking direct numerical simulation code has been developed to perform the large-scale turbulent particle transport computations reported in this thesis. The DNS code is validated after demonstrating good agreement with the published DNS results for the same flow and Reynolds number. Lagrangian particle transport computations are carried out using a large ensemble of passive tracers and finite-inertia particles and the assumption of one-way fluid-particle coupling. Using four different types of initial particle distributions, Lagrangian particle dispersion, concentration and deposition are studied in the turbulent straight square duct. Particles are released in a uniform distribution on a cross-sectional plane at the duct inlet, released as particle pairs in the core region of the duct, distributed randomly in the domain or distributed uniformly in planes at certain heights above the walls. One- and two-particle dispersion statistics are computed and discussed for the low Reynolds number inhomogeneous turbulence present in a straight square duct. New detailed statistics on particle number concentration and deposition are also obtained and discussed.

Particle-laden turbulent flow through a straight square duct at Reτ = 300 is studied using direct numerical simulation (DNS) and Lagrangian particle tracking. A parallelized 3-D particle tracking direct numerical simulation code has been developed to perform the large-scale turbulent particle transport computations reported in this thesis. The DNS code is validated after demonstrating good agreement with the published DNS results for the same flow and Reynolds number. Lagrangian particle transport computations are carried out using a large ensemble of passive tracers and finite-inertia particles and the assumption of one-way fluid-particle coupling. Using four different types of initial particle distributions, Lagrangian particle dispersion, concentration and deposition are studied in the turbulent straight square duct. Particles are released in a uniform distribution on a cross-sectional plane at the duct inlet, released as particle pairs in the core region of the duct, distributed randomly in the domain or distributed uniformly in planes at certain heights above the walls. One- and two-particle dispersion statistics are computed and discussed for the low Reynolds number inhomogeneous turbulence present in a straight square duct. New detailed statistics on particle number concentration and deposition are also obtained and discussed.

The understanding of human exposure to indoor particles of all sizes is important to enable exposure control and reduction, but especially for smaller particles since the smaller particles have a higher probability of penetration into the deeper parts of the respiratory tract and also contain higher levels of trace elements and toxins. Due to the limited understanding of the relationship between particle size and the health effects they cause, as well as instrument limitations, the available information on submicrometer (d < 1.0 µm) particles indoors, both in terms of mass and number concentrations, is still relatively limited. This PhD project was conducted as part of the South-East Queensland Air Quality program and Queensland Housing Study aimed at providing a better understanding of ambient particle concentrations within the indoor environment with a focus on exposure assessment and control. This PhD project was designed to investigate comprehensively the sources and sinks of indoor aerosol particles and the relationship between indoor and outdoor aerosol particles, particle and gaseous pollutant, as well as the association between indoor air pollutants and house characteristics by using, analysing and interpreting existing experimental data which were collected before this project commenced, as well as data from additional experiments which were designed and conducted for the purpose of this project. The focus of this research was on submicrometer particles with a diameter between 0.007 - 0.808 µm. The main outcome of this project may be summarised as following: * A comprehensive review of particle concentration levels and size distributions characteristics in the residential and non-industrial workplace environments was conducted. This review included only those studies in which more general trends were investigated, or could be concluded based on information provided in the papers. This review included four parts: 1) outdoor particles and their effect on indoor environments; 2) the relationship between indoor and outdoor concentration levels in the absence of indoor sources for naturally ventilated buildings; 3) indoor sources of particles: contribution to indoor concentration levels and the effect on I/O ratios for naturally ventilated buildings; and 4) indoor/outdoor relationship in mechanically ventilated buildings. * The relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne particles was investigated for sixteen residential houses in Brisbane, Australia, in the absence of operating indoor sources. Comparison of the ratios of indoor to outdoor particle concentrations revealed that while temporary values of the ratio vary in a broad range from 0.2 to 2.5 for both lower and higher ventilation conditions, average values of the ratios were very close to one regardless of ventilation conditions and of particle size range. The ratios were in the range from 0.78 to 1.07 for submicrometer particles, from 0.95 to 1.0 for supermicrometer particles and from 1.01 to 1.08 for PM2.5 fraction. Comparison of the time series of indoor to outdoor particle concentrations showed a clear positive relationship existing for many houses under normal ventilation conditions (estimated to be about and above 2 h-1), but not under minimum ventilation conditions (estimated to be about and below 1 h-1). These results suggest that for normal ventilation conditions and in the absence of operating indoor sources, outdoor particle concentrations could be used to predict instantaneous indoor particle concentrations but not for minium ventilation, unless air exchange rate is known, thus allowing for estimation of the "delay constant". * Diurnal variation of indoor submicrometer particle number and particle mass (approximation of PM2.5) concentrations was investigated in fifteen of the houses. The results show that there were clear diurnal variations in both particle number and approximation of PM2.5 concentrations, for all the investigated houses. The pattern of diurnal variations varied from house to house, however, there was always a close relationship between the concentration and human indoor activities. The average number and mass concentrations during indoor activities were (18.2±3.9)×10³ particles cm-³ and (15.5±7.9) µg m-³ respectively, and under non-activity conditions, (12.4±2.7)x10³ particles cm-³ (11.1±2.6) µg m-³, respectively. In general, there was a poor correlation between mass and number concentrations and the correlation coefficients were highly variable from day to day and from house to house. This implies that conclusions cannot be drawn about either one of the number or mass concentration characteristics of indoor particles, based on measurement of the other. The study also showed that it is unlikely that particle concentrations indoors could be represented by measurements conducted at a fixed monitoring station due to the large impact of indoor and local sources. * Emission characteristics of indoor particle sources in fourteen residential houses were quantified. In addition, characterizations of particles resulting from cooking conducted in an identical way in all the houses were measured. All the events of elevated particle concentrations were linked to indoor activities using house occupants diary entries, and catalogued into 21 different types of indoor activities. This enabled quantification of the effect of indoor sources on indoor particle concentrations as well as quantification of emission rates from the sources. For example, the study found that frying, grilling, stove use, toasting, cooking pizza, smoking, candle vaporizing eucalyptus oil and fan heater use, could elevate the indoor submicrometer particle number concentration levels by more than 5 times, while PM2.5 concentrations could be up to 3, 30 and 90 times higher than the background levels during smoking, frying and grilling, respectively. * Indoor particle deposition rates of size classified particles in the size range from 0.015 to 6 µm were quantified. Particle size distribution resulting from cooking, repeated under two different ventilation conditions in 14 houses, as well as changes to particle size distribution as a function of time, were measured using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS), an aerodynamic particle sizer (APS), and a DustTrak. Deposition rates were determined by regression fitting of the measured size-resolved particle number and PM2.5 concentration decay curves, and accounting for air exchange rate. The measured deposition rates were shown to be particle size dependent and they varied from house to house. The lowest deposition rates were found for particles in the size range from 0.2 to 0.3 µm for both minimum (air exchange rate: 0.61±0.45 h-1) and normal (air exchange rate: 3.00±1.23 h-1) ventilation conditions. The results of statistical analysis indicated that ventilation condition (measured in terms of air exchange rate) was an important factor affecting deposition rates for particles in the size range from 0.08 to 1.0 µm, but not for particles smaller than 0.08 µm or larger than 1.0 µm. Particle coagulation was assessed to be negligible compared to the two other processes of removal: ventilation and deposition. This study of particle deposition rates, the largest conducted so far in terms of the number of residential houses investigated, demonstrated trends in deposition rates comparable with studies previously reported, usually for significantly smaller samples of houses (often only one). However, the results compare better with studies which, similarly to this study, investigated cooking as a source of particles (particle sources investigated in other studies included general activity, cleaning, artificial particles, etc). * Residential indoor and outdoor 48 h average levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 48h indoor submicrometer particle number concentration and the approximation of PM2.5 concentrations were measured simultaneously for fourteen houses. Statistical analyses of the correlation between indoor and outdoor pollutants (NO2 and particles) and the association between house characteristics and indoor pollutants were conducted. The average indoor and outdoor NO2 levels were 13.8 ± 6.3 ppb and 16.7 ± 4.2 ppb, respectively. The indoor/outdoor NO2 concentration ratio ranged from 0.4 to 2.3, with a median value of 0.82. Despite statistically significant correlations between outdoor and fixed site NO2 monitoring station concentrations (p = 0.014, p = 0.008), there was no significant correlation between either indoor and outdoor NO2 concentrations (p = 0.428), or between indoor and fixed site NO2 monitoring station concentrations (p = 0.252, p = 0.465,). However, there was a significant correlation between indoor NO2 concentration and indoor submicrometer aerosol particle number concentrations (p = 0.001), as well as between indoor PM2.5 and outdoor NO2 (p = 0.004). These results imply that the outdoor or fixed site monitoring concentration alone is a poor predictor of indoor NO2 concentration. * Analysis of variance indicated that there was no significant association between indoor PM2.5 and any of the house characteristics investigated (p > 0.05). However, associations between indoor submicrometer particle number concentration and some house characteristics (stove type, water heater type, number of cars and condition of paintwork) were significant at the 5% level. Associations between indoor NO2 and some house characteristics (house age, stove type, heating system, water heater type and floor type) were also significant (p < 0.05). The results of these analyses thus strongly suggest that the gas stove, gas heating system and gas water heater system are main indoor sources of indoor submicrometer particle and NO2 concentrations in the studied residential houses. The significant contributions of this PhD project to the knowledge of indoor particle included: 1) improving an understanding of indoor particles behaviour in residential houses, especially for submicrometer particle; 2) improving an understanding of indoor particle source and indoor particle sink characteristics, as well as their effects on indoor particle concentration levels in residential houses; 3) improving an understanding of the relationship between indoor and outdoor particles, the relationship between particle mass and particle number, correlation between indoor NO2 and indoor particles, as well as association between indoor particle, NO2 and house characteristics.

This thesis describes validated improvements in the modelling of micron-sized particle deposition within gas turbine engine secondary air systems. The initial aim of the research was to employ appropriate models of instantaneous turbulent flow behaviour to RANS CFD simulations, allowing the trajectory of solid particulates in the flow to be accurately predicted. Following critical assessment of turbophoretic models, the continuous random walk (CRW) model was chosen to predict instantaneous fluid fluctuating velocities. Particle flow, characterised by non-dimensional deposition velocity and particle relaxation time, was observed to match published experimental vertical pipe flow data. This was possible due to redefining the integration time step in terms of Kolmagorov and Lagrangian time scales, reducing the disparity between simulations and experimental data by an order of magnitude. As no high temperature validation data for the CRW model were available, an experimental rig was developed to conduct horizontal pipe flow experiments under engine realistic conditions. Both the experimental rig, and a new particulate concentration measurement technique, based on post test aqueous solution electrical conductivity, were qualified at ambient conditions. These new experimental data compare well to published data at non-dimensional particle relaxation times below 7. Above, a tail off in the deposition rate is observed, potentially caused by a bounce or shear removal mechanism at higher particle kinetic energy. At elevated temperatures and isothermal conditions, similar behaviour is observed to the ambient data. Under engine representative thermophoretic conditions, a negative gas to wall temperature gradient is seen to increase deposition by up to 4.8 times, the reverse decreasing deposition by a factor of up to 560 relative to the isothermal data. Numerical simulations using the CRW model under-predict isothermal deposition, though capturing relative thermophoretic effects well. By applying an anisotropic Lagrangian time scale, and cross trajectory effects of the external gravitational force, good agreement was observed, the first inclusion of the effect within the CRW model. A dynamic mesh morphing method was then developed, enabling the effect of large scale particle deposition to be included in simulations, without continual remeshing of the fluid domain. Simulation of an impingement jet array showed deposition of characteristic mounds up to 30% of the hole diameter in height. Simulation of a passage with film-cooling hole off-takes generated hole blockage of up to 40%. These cases confirmed that the use of the CRW generated deposition locations in line with scant available experimental data, but widespread airline fleet experience. Changing rates of deposition were observed with the evolution of the deposits in both cases, highlighting the importance of capturing changing passage geometry through dynamic mesh morphing. The level of deposition observed, was however, greater than expected in a real engine environment and identifies a need to further refine bounce-stick and erosion modelling to complement the improved prediction of impact location identified in this thesis.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:56:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 5797.pdf: 4020114 bytes, checksum: 6512b1824308fd9cb725adcf72277695 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-28 / Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos / The industrialization process and the fast growth of cities lead to an increase of respiratory diseases and, therefore, lead to the beginning of studies involving particle deposition in human lung airways. This work used Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to evaluate the air flow and particle deposition process in three bifurcations of human respiratory system bronchia, considering three ramifications. The model has been validated by the comparison with experimental data available in the literature. It was considered four inlet rates, which correspond to sleep, resting, moderate activity and intense activity breathing conditions of adult male, with particles diameters varying from 1 to 10 &#956;m. It was observed that the air flow is more intense in the inner region of the model, since it was used a parabolic velocity profile at the inlet, and the presence of secondary motion. The particle deposition increased with the intensity of the activity due to higher momentum of the particles, resulting in greater deposition by inertial impaction. Furthermore, CFD techniques were used to compare the particle deposition process during inhalation and further breath holding and exhalation, separately. It was observed a higher number of deposited particles during breath holding when compared with exhalation, justifying the medical recommendations to hold the breath during few seconds after the inhalation of pharmaceutical aerosols. Lastly, the physical mechanisms of gravitational sedimentation, Brownian diffusion and inertial impaction were evaluated and indicated that gravitational sedimentation is more active for bigger particles, while Brownian diffusion has more importance for particles with smaller diameters, and both have more influence in situations involving low speed. Therefore, it can be concluded that CFD is a viable technique and it can be used to represent the physical phenomena of air flow and particle deposition in the portion of respiratory system considered in this work. / O processo de industrialização e o rápido crescimento dos centros urbanos levaram a uma maior incidência de doenças respiratórias e, consequentemente, ao início dos estudos envolvendo deposição de partículas nas vias respiratórias humanas. Este trabalho utilizou a Fluidodinâmica Computacional (CFD) para avaliar o escoamento de ar e a deposição de partículas nos brônquios do sistema respiratório humano, considerando três ramificações. O modelo foi validado através da comparação com dados experimentais disponíveis na literatura. Foram consideradas quatro vazões de entrada, correspondendo às condições de sono, repouso, atividade moderada e atividade intensa de um indivíduo homem adulto, com diâmetro de partícula variando de 1 a 10 &#956;m. Foi observado que o fluxo de ar foi mais intenso região interna do modelo, uma vez que foi utilizado um perfil parabólico na entrada, e a presença de escoamento secundário. A deposição da partícula aumentou com a intensidade da atividade do indivíduo devido a uma maior quantidade de movimento das partículas, resultando em uma maior deposição por impactação inercial. Além disso, as técnicas de CFD foram utilizadas para comparar o processo de deposição das partículas durante a inalação seguida de suspensão da respiração e expiração, separadamente. Foi observada uma maior deposição durante a suspensão da respiração, justificando as recomendações médicas para suspender a respiração durante alguns segundos depois da inalação de aerossóis farmacêuticos. Por fim, os mecanismos físicos de sedimentação gravitacional, difusão Browniana e impactação inercial foram avaliados e indicaram que a sedimentação gravitacional é mais atuante para partículas maiores, enquanto o mecanismo difusional tem maior importância para partículas com diâmetros menores, de forma que ambos têm maior influência em situações envolvendo baixa velocidade. Dessa forma, pode-se concluir que as ferramentas de CFD são viáveis e podem ser utilizadas para representar o fenômeno físico de escoamento de ar e de deposição de partículas na porção do sistema respiratório considerada neste trabalho.

Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation werden eine Serie von Grundlagenexperimenten zur Ablagerung (Deposition) und Remobilisierung (Resuspension) von Aerosolpartikeln in turbulenten Strömungen beschrieben. Die Kernmotivation stellt die Quelltermanalyse von Druckentlastungsstörfällen von Hochtemperaturreaktoren (HTR) dar. Im Primärkreislauf früherer HTR-Forschungsanlagen wurden größere Mengen an radiologisch belastetem Graphitstaub gefunden. Dieser Staub scheint größtenteils durch Abrieb zwischen den graphitischen Kernstrukturen entstanden zu sein und verteilte sich während des fortlaufenden Reaktorbetriebs über sämtliche Oberflächen des Primärkreislaufs. Während eines Druckentlastungsstörfalls kann dieser Staub durch die Gasströmung remobilisiert und aus dem Primärkreislauf ausgetragen werden. Eine Quelltermanalyse solch eines Störfallszenarios erfordert die Kenntnis über die Menge und die räumliche Verteilung des Staubs, die radiologische Belastung sowie das Remobilisierungsverhalten in Bezug auf die zu erwartenden Strömungstransienten. Nach dem heutigen Stand von Wissenschaft und Technik kann die räumlich-zeitliche Verteilung des Staubs im Primärkreislauf für stationären Reaktorbetrieb unter Verwendung eindimensionaler Systemcodes abgeschätzt werden. Jedoch ist unbekannt, welcher Anteil des Staubinventars durch die Gasströmung remobilisiert und aus dem Primärkreislauf ausgetragen werden würde. Zur systematischen Untersuchung des Staubtransportverhaltens in turbulenten Strömungen wurden zwei kleinskalige Versuchsanlagen entwickelt und eine Serie von Depositions- und Resuspensionsexperimenten durchgeführt. Die partikelbeladene Strömung in der Heißgasumgebung des HTR-Primärkreislaufs wurde über die Verwendung von Ähnlichkeitskennzahlen auf eine Luftströmung bei Umgebungsbedingungen herunterskaliert. Die Strömung und die Partikel wurden mittels hochauflösender, bildgebender und nichtinvasiver Messverfahren räumlich und zeitlich vermessen, um eine umfangreiche Datenbasis für die Analyse der Partikeltransportprozesse zu erstellen. Inhaltlich lassen sich die durchgeführten Untersuchungen in drei Teile gliedern. Der erste Teil besteht aus zwei Studien über die Deposition und Resuspension monodisperser, sphärischer Einzelpartikel in einer ungestörten, horizontalen Kanalströmung. Die systematische Variation experimenteller Randbedingungen wie der Partikelgröße, der Oberflächenrauheit und der Strömungsgeschwindigkeit ermöglichte die Quantifizierung der einzelnen Einflussgrößen. Im zweiten und dritten Teil der Dissertation wurden die Deposition und Resuspension einer mehrschichtigen Ablagerung (Partikel-Multilayer) zwischen periodischen Stufen und in einer Kugelschüttung untersucht, um die komplexe Interaktion zwischen der turbulenten Strömung und der Multilayer-Ablagerung weiter zu erforschen. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse leisten einen Beitrag für die Quelltermanalyse des Staubtransports im HTR-Primärkreislauf und können für die Weiterentwicklung numerischer Strömungssimulationen des Partikeltransports in turbulenten Strömungen verwendet werden.:Kurzfassung III Abstract V Abkürzungs- und Symbolverzeichnis X 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Grundzüge der Hochtemperaturreaktortechnik 1 1.2 Sicherheitsrelevante Aspekte des Hochtemperaturreaktors 3 1.3 Weiterführende Bedeutung der Ablagerung und Remobilisierung von Aerosolpartikeln 4 1.4 Inhalt der Dissertation 5 2 Strömungsmechanische Grundlagen und Stand der Forschung 8 2.1 Partikeleigenschaften des Graphitstaubs im HTR-Primärkreislauf 8 2.2 Beschreibung wandgebundener, turbulenter Strömungen 9 2.3 Turbulente Strömung durch eine Kugelschüttung 12 2.4 Einzelpartikel-Deposition in turbulenten Strömungen 13 2.5 Multilayer-Partikel-Deposition und -Resuspension in turbulenten Strömungen 21 3 Versuchsanlagen und Messtechnik 22 3.1 Die Versuchsanlage Gas Particle Loop 22 3.2 Die Versuchsanlage Pebble Bed Loop 24 3.3 Strömungsmechanische Instrumentierung 26 3.4 Aerosolmesstechnische Instrumentierung 28 4 Partikeltransport in einer horizontalen Kanalströmung 30 4.1 Turbulente Durchmischung der Aerosolpartikel und Strömungsentwicklung 30 4.2 Einzelpartikeldeposition 36 4.2.1 Experimenteller Aufbau 37 4.2.2 Randbedingungen und Versuchsdurchführung 38 4.2.3 Datenanalyse 39 4.2.4 Ergebnisse 42 4.2.5 Schlussfolgerungen 44 4.3 Einzelpartikelresuspension 46 4.3.1 Experimenteller Aufbau und Instrumentierung 47 4.3.2 Randbedingungen und Versuchsdurchführung 48 4.3.3 Datenanalyse 50 4.3.4 Resuspension sphärischer Glaspartikel von einer glatten Glasoberfläche 52 4.3.5 Resuspension sphärischer Polypropylen-Partikel von einer glatten Glasoberfläche 54 4.3.6 Resuspension sphärischer Glaspartikel von einer rauen Stahloberfläche 56 4.3.7 Diskussion der Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen 57 5 Partikeltransport in einem Kanal mit periodischen Stufen 61 5.1 Auswahl der Testgeometrie 61 5.2 Instrumentierung 62 5.3 Versuchsdurchführung 64 5.4 Turbulentes Strömungsfeld zwischen den periodischen Stufen 65 5.5 Experimentelle Ergebnisse der Multilayer-Partikel-Deposition 67 5.5.1 Orts- und zeitaufgelöste Verteilung des Schichtdickenaufbaus 67 5.5.2 Oberflächenrauheit und Volumenporosität der Multilayer-Ablagerung 74 5.6 Experimentelle Ergebnisse der Multilayer-Partikel-Resuspension 75 5.6.1 Räumliche Verteilung der verbleibenden Partikel-Multilayer 75 5.6.2 Integrale Betrachtung des Resuspensionsvorgangs 79 5.6.3 Oberflächenrauheit und Volumenporosität der Partikel-Multilayer 81 5.7 Schlussfolgerungen 82 6 Partikeltransport in einer Kugelschüttung 84 6.1 Bisherige experimentelle und numerische Untersuchungen 85 6.2 Experimentelle Randbedingungen und Versuchsdurchführung 86 6.3 Charakterisierung der turbulenten Strömung im Kugelhaufen 88 6.4 Positronenemissionstomographie – Messprinzip und Datenauswertung 91 6.5 Deposition von flüssigen Aerosolpartikeln 93 6.5.1 Erzeugung und radioaktive Markierung der flüssigen Aerosolpartikel 93 6.5.2 Partikelkonzentrationsmessungen über der Kugelschüttung 94 6.5.3 Zeitlicher Verlauf der gemessenen Aktivität 96 6.5.4 Axiale Verteilung der gemessenen Aktivität 97 6.5.5 Dreidimensionale Verteilung der Aktivität im Kugelhaufen 98 6.6 Deposition und Remobilisierung von technischem Graphitstaub 99 6.6.1 Radioaktive Markierung der Graphitpartikel 99 6.6.2 Konzentrations- und Geschwindigkeitsmessungen 101 6.6.3 Zeitlicher Verlauf der gemessenen Aktivität 103 6.6.4 Räumliche Verteilung der Aktivität in der Kugelschüttung 105 6.6.5 Quantifizierung des Resuspensionsexperiments 107 6.7 Zusammenfassende Schlussfolgerungen 108 7 Diskussion der Ergebnisse 111 7.1 Einzel- und Multilayer-Partikelablagerungen 111 7.2 Einzel- und Multilayer-Partikelresuspension 112 7.3 Vergleich der experimentellen Daten mit numerischen Simulationen 113 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 117 8.1 Grundlegende Erkenntnisse den experimentellen Studien 118 8.2 Bedeutung der Erkenntnisse für das Fachgebiet und die Sicherheitsbewertung des HTR 120 8.3 Ausblick 122 8.3.1 Einzelpartikel-Deposition in turbulenten Kanalströmungen 122 8.3.2 Einzelpartikel-Resuspension in turbulenten Kanalströmungen 123 8.3.3 Multilayer-Partikel-Deposition und -Resuspension zwischen periodischen Stufen 124 8.3.4 Untersuchung des Partikeltransports in komplexen Geometrien mittels PET 125 Literaturverzeichnis 127 Appendix 137 Danksagung 139 / Aerosol particle deposition and resuspension experiments in turbulent flows were performed to investigate the complex particle transport phenomena and to provide a database for the development and validation of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes. The background motivation is related to the source term analysis of an accidental depressurization scenario of a High Temperature Reactor (HTR). During the operation of former HTR pilot plants, larger amounts of radio-contaminated graphite dust were found in the primary circuit. This dust most likely arose due to abrasion between the graphitic core components and was deposited on the inner wall surfaces of the primary circuit. In case of an accident scenario, such as a depressurization of the primary circuit, the dust may be remobilized and may escape the system boundaries. The estimation of the source term being discharged during such a scenario requires fundamental knowledge of the particle deposition, the amount of contaminants per unit mass as well as the resuspension phenomena. Nowadays, the graphite dust distribution in the primary circuit of an HTR can be calculated for stationary conditions using one-dimensional reactor system codes. However, it is rather unknown which fraction of the graphite dust inventory may be remobilized during a depressurization of the HTR primary circuit. Two small-scale experimental facilities were designed and a set of experiments was performed to investigate particle transport, deposition and resuspension in turbulent flows. The facility design concept is based on the fluid dynamic downscaling of the helium pressure boundary in the HTR primary circuit to an airflow at ambient conditions in the laboratory. The turbulent flow and the particles were recorded by high-resolution, non-invasive imaging techniques to provide a spatio-temporal insight into the particle transport processes. The different investigations of this thesis can be grouped into three categories. Firstly, the deposition and resuspension of monodisperse single particles in a horizontal turbulent channel flow was studied. The systematic variation of the experimental boundary conditions allows for the quantification of the influences of particle size, surface roughness, and fluid velocity. In the second and third part of this thesis, the deposition and resuspension of a particle multilayer between periodic steps and in a pebble bed was studied to explore the complex interaction between the turbulent flow and the particles, respectively. The findings of this thesis are a contribution to the source term analysis of HTR related accidental depressurizations. Furthermore, the database can be applied to CFD code developments for the numerical simulation of particle transport processes in turbulent flows.:Kurzfassung III Abstract V Abkürzungs- und Symbolverzeichnis X 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Grundzüge der Hochtemperaturreaktortechnik 1 1.2 Sicherheitsrelevante Aspekte des Hochtemperaturreaktors 3 1.3 Weiterführende Bedeutung der Ablagerung und Remobilisierung von Aerosolpartikeln 4 1.4 Inhalt der Dissertation 5 2 Strömungsmechanische Grundlagen und Stand der Forschung 8 2.1 Partikeleigenschaften des Graphitstaubs im HTR-Primärkreislauf 8 2.2 Beschreibung wandgebundener, turbulenter Strömungen 9 2.3 Turbulente Strömung durch eine Kugelschüttung 12 2.4 Einzelpartikel-Deposition in turbulenten Strömungen 13 2.5 Multilayer-Partikel-Deposition und -Resuspension in turbulenten Strömungen 21 3 Versuchsanlagen und Messtechnik 22 3.1 Die Versuchsanlage Gas Particle Loop 22 3.2 Die Versuchsanlage Pebble Bed Loop 24 3.3 Strömungsmechanische Instrumentierung 26 3.4 Aerosolmesstechnische Instrumentierung 28 4 Partikeltransport in einer horizontalen Kanalströmung 30 4.1 Turbulente Durchmischung der Aerosolpartikel und Strömungsentwicklung 30 4.2 Einzelpartikeldeposition 36 4.2.1 Experimenteller Aufbau 37 4.2.2 Randbedingungen und Versuchsdurchführung 38 4.2.3 Datenanalyse 39 4.2.4 Ergebnisse 42 4.2.5 Schlussfolgerungen 44 4.3 Einzelpartikelresuspension 46 4.3.1 Experimenteller Aufbau und Instrumentierung 47 4.3.2 Randbedingungen und Versuchsdurchführung 48 4.3.3 Datenanalyse 50 4.3.4 Resuspension sphärischer Glaspartikel von einer glatten Glasoberfläche 52 4.3.5 Resuspension sphärischer Polypropylen-Partikel von einer glatten Glasoberfläche 54 4.3.6 Resuspension sphärischer Glaspartikel von einer rauen Stahloberfläche 56 4.3.7 Diskussion der Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen 57 5 Partikeltransport in einem Kanal mit periodischen Stufen 61 5.1 Auswahl der Testgeometrie 61 5.2 Instrumentierung 62 5.3 Versuchsdurchführung 64 5.4 Turbulentes Strömungsfeld zwischen den periodischen Stufen 65 5.5 Experimentelle Ergebnisse der Multilayer-Partikel-Deposition 67 5.5.1 Orts- und zeitaufgelöste Verteilung des Schichtdickenaufbaus 67 5.5.2 Oberflächenrauheit und Volumenporosität der Multilayer-Ablagerung 74 5.6 Experimentelle Ergebnisse der Multilayer-Partikel-Resuspension 75 5.6.1 Räumliche Verteilung der verbleibenden Partikel-Multilayer 75 5.6.2 Integrale Betrachtung des Resuspensionsvorgangs 79 5.6.3 Oberflächenrauheit und Volumenporosität der Partikel-Multilayer 81 5.7 Schlussfolgerungen 82 6 Partikeltransport in einer Kugelschüttung 84 6.1 Bisherige experimentelle und numerische Untersuchungen 85 6.2 Experimentelle Randbedingungen und Versuchsdurchführung 86 6.3 Charakterisierung der turbulenten Strömung im Kugelhaufen 88 6.4 Positronenemissionstomographie – Messprinzip und Datenauswertung 91 6.5 Deposition von flüssigen Aerosolpartikeln 93 6.5.1 Erzeugung und radioaktive Markierung der flüssigen Aerosolpartikel 93 6.5.2 Partikelkonzentrationsmessungen über der Kugelschüttung 94 6.5.3 Zeitlicher Verlauf der gemessenen Aktivität 96 6.5.4 Axiale Verteilung der gemessenen Aktivität 97 6.5.5 Dreidimensionale Verteilung der Aktivität im Kugelhaufen 98 6.6 Deposition und Remobilisierung von technischem Graphitstaub 99 6.6.1 Radioaktive Markierung der Graphitpartikel 99 6.6.2 Konzentrations- und Geschwindigkeitsmessungen 101 6.6.3 Zeitlicher Verlauf der gemessenen Aktivität 103 6.6.4 Räumliche Verteilung der Aktivität in der Kugelschüttung 105 6.6.5 Quantifizierung des Resuspensionsexperiments 107 6.7 Zusammenfassende Schlussfolgerungen 108 7 Diskussion der Ergebnisse 111 7.1 Einzel- und Multilayer-Partikelablagerungen 111 7.2 Einzel- und Multilayer-Partikelresuspension 112 7.3 Vergleich der experimentellen Daten mit numerischen Simulationen 113 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 117 8.1 Grundlegende Erkenntnisse den experimentellen Studien 118 8.2 Bedeutung der Erkenntnisse für das Fachgebiet und die Sicherheitsbewertung des HTR 120 8.3 Ausblick 122 8.3.1 Einzelpartikel-Deposition in turbulenten Kanalströmungen 122 8.3.2 Einzelpartikel-Resuspension in turbulenten Kanalströmungen 123 8.3.3 Multilayer-Partikel-Deposition und -Resuspension zwischen periodischen Stufen 124 8.3.4 Untersuchung des Partikeltransports in komplexen Geometrien mittels PET 125 Literaturverzeichnis 127 Appendix 137 Danksagung 139

Wood is a renewable resource and versatile material used in tasks ranging from tools and furniture to advanced engineering structures. Although wood is light, mechanically robust, environmentally friendly, and abundant, some inherent properties of wood, such as degradation due to moisture and UV radiation from sunlight, are less desirable for extended service life and dimensional stability. In this dissertation, a novel surface modification of wood is explored by depositing nano-sized titania particles on wood veneers and cross-laminated timber (CLT) blocks by liquid-precursor flame spray pyrolysis to confer reversible wettability switching and enhanced durability to UV irradiation. The reaction between a flame source and a titanium precursor in isopropyl alcohol under controlled air pressure created a micrometer-scale thin TiO2 coating on wood that turns the treated wood superhydrophobic with a water contact angle (WCA) of >=150°. Morphological studies suggest the coating is comprised of sub-100 nm TiO2 individual and aggregated particles, creating a very porous microstructure. The coating consists of TiO2 rich in the anatase phase (>60%) with an average crystal size of 18 and 32 nm for the anatase and rutile phases, respectively. The wettability switching characteristics of the surface of TiO2-wood veneers from superhydrophobicity to superhydrophilicity (WCA ~0°) and again back to superhydrophobicity are examined through UV exposure (0.0032 W/m2), WCA measurements, and vacuum drying at ~0.14 mbar. The color and gloss spectrometry results of the TiO2-treated CLT samples indicate that the coating offered better resistance to discoloration and gloss change than the uncoated samples during the 8-week accelerated weathering conditions. The data shows that the FSP-treated CLT samples were more than two times more effective in preventing discoloration and changes in natural luster, as evidenced by the significant differences in L*, a*, b*, and gloss values. Moreover, the FSP treatment might have played a role in preventing weathering defects, such as splits and cracks. In addition, the FSP-treated CLT specimens were able to reduce variability in the samples more effectively than the control group. Overall, the findings of the study indicate that liquid-precursor FSP has the potential to serve as a facile, economically viable, and less energy-intensive approach to modify wooden surfaces for improved hydrophobicity, as well as to provide shielding against the deteriorating impacts of UV radiation and moisture exposure. Keywords: wood modification, flame spray pyrolysis, titania coating, superhydrophobic coating, particle deposition, wettability switching

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In this thesis, the ribbed ducts of the internal cooling passage in turbine blading are investigated to demonstrate the effects of high speed rotation. Rotation coupled with high temperature operating conditions alters the mean flow, turbulence, and heat transfer augmentation due to Coriolis and centrifugal buoyancy forces that arises from density stratification in the domain. Gas turbine engines operate in particle laden environments (sand, volcanic ash), and particulate matter ingested by the engine can make their way into the blade internal cooling passages over thousands of operating hours. These particulates can deposit on the walls of these cooling passages and degrade performance of the turbine blade. Large-Eddy Simulations (LES) with temperature dependent properties is used for turbulent flow and heat transfer in the ribbed cooling passages and Lagrangian tracking is used to calculate the particle trajectories together with a wall deposition model. The conditions used are Re=100,000, Rotation number, Ro = 0.0 and 0.2, and centrifugal Buoyancy parameters of Bo=0, 0.5, and 1.0. First, the independent effects of Coriolis and centrifugal buoyancy forces are investigated, with a focus on the additional augmentation obtained in heat transfer with the addition of centrifugal buoyancy. Coriolis forces are known to augment heat transfer at the trailing wall and attenuate the same at the leading wall. Phenomenological arguments stated that centrifugal buoyancy augments the effects of Coriolis forces in outward flow in the first pass while opposing the effect of Coriolis forces during inward flow in the second pass. In this study, it was found that in the first pass, centrifugal buoyancy had a greater effect in augmenting heat transfer at the trailing wall than in attenuating heat transfer at the leading wall. On the contrary, it aided heat transfer in the second half of the first pass at the leading wall by energizing the flow near the wall. Also, contrary to phenomenological arguments, inclusion of centrifugal buoyancy augmented heat transfer over Coriolis forces alone on both the leading and trailing walls of the second pass. Sand ingestion is then investigated, by injecting 200,000 particles in the size range of 0.5-175μm with 65% of the particles below 10 μm. Three duct wall temperatures are investigated, 950, 1000 and 1050 °C with an inlet temperature of flow and particles at 527 °C . The impingement, deposition levels, and impact characteristics are recorded as the particles move through the domain. It was found that the Coriolis force greatly increases deposition. This was made prevalent in the first pass, as 84% of the deposits in the domain occurred in the first pass for the rotating case, whereas only 27% of deposits occurred in the first pass for the stationary case with the majority of deposits occurring in the bend region. This was due to an increased interaction with the trailing wall in the rotating case whereas particles in the stationary case were allowed to remain in the mean flow and gain momentum, making rebounding from a wall during collision more likely than deposition. In contrast, the variation of wall temperatures caused little to no change in deposition levels. This was concluded to be a result of the high Reynolds number used in the flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the particles have a short residence times in the internal cooling circuit not allowing the flow and particles to heat up to the wall temperature. Overall, 87% of the injected particles deposited in the rotating duct whereas 58% deposited in the stationary duct. / Master of Science