The current patent system is by many scholars considered flawed regarding the intended positiveeffects on innovation, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). However, aneffective patent system requires possibilities for firms to enforce their patent rights to fulfil thebasic premise of inspiring innovation. The purpose of this study is to examine the challenges thatSMEs face in patent litigation and how it affects them and their innovation. 14 semi-structuredinterviews were conducted with Chief executive officers or research and development managersof Swedish SMEs to gain insights into the process of patent litigation and its effects on theinterviewed firms. Results showed that R&D investments decreased after patent infringement inmany cases and that firms had a tendency to change the way new patents are written to createstronger patents. The main finding is that patent litigation had a negative effect on SMEs, due tothe high direct and indirect costs resulting from a patent case. This adds to previous researchwhich highlights the disproportionate effects of patent litigation on small firms compared tolarger firms.

Yes / In this paper we study the determinants of the strength of patent enforcement in 43 member countries of the World Trade Organization (WTO) between 1998 and 2011, a period after the signing of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement. We do so by building on and expanding the seminal work of Ginarte and Park (1997) on the pre-TRIPS determinants of patent rights in the years 1960-1990. We find that in the years after TRIPS was signed, the strength of patent enforcement of a country is positively determined by two variables that signify the usage of the patent and intellectual property system, and the number of patent and trademark applications. We also find that the level of research and development expenditure, the quality of human capital, and the level of development of a country have positive effects on the strength of the enforcement of patent law in practice. Intellectual property rights enforcement is one of the key investment-related policies included in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development. Identifying the determinants of strong patent systems will help policymakers at the national and supranational levels to design and implement effective policies that strengthen national patent systems, thereby enhancing economic benefits such as greater levels of commercialization of intangible assets and greater levels of international trade and investment.

This thesis analyzes Turkey&rsquo / s integration to European Patent System with special reference to the role of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) within this process. The main purpose is to understand the position of SMEs in Turkey within the industrial property (IP) system in general, patent system in particular, as their effective usage of the IP system is crucial in terms of proper integration of Turkey into the European Patent System. In this respect, the thesis aims to answer two basic questions, namely, &ldquo / What is the role of SMEs within the process of Turkey&rsquo / s integration to European Patent System&rdquo / and &ldquo / How can a more effective use of patent system by the SMEs in Turkey be achieved?&rdquo / Within this framework, a field research was conducted in three different industrial areas in Ankara with 136 SMEs active in manufacturing industry. Within the scope of the field research, it was tried to measure the R&amp / D capacity as well as the extent to which the industrial property system, especially the patent system, in Turkey is effectively used by the participant firms. According to the results of the field research, some proposals were tried to be put forward in terms of the achievement of a more effective use of the industrial property system in general, patent system in particular, by the SMEs in Turkey.

This thesis deals with the analysis of patent information, focusing in particular on their use in the business environment. The first part deals with the problems of intellectual property and protection of industrial property rights. A substantial part of the work is devoted to the patent system and its importance for the development of innovative potential of companies and institutions. Another section contains information relating to the patent searching. The final chapters focus on areas of competitive intelligence and especially on the sources of patent information.

The patent system has developed over a period of over 500 years. The initial motivation was a desire to import privately held technology to advance economic development, offering excluding and transferrable rights through licensing to “inventors” for the disclosure and perfection of their “contrivance” (invention). These rights have gradually developed to internationally accepted private property rights on technology and are today in many wayssimilar to physical assets, establishing, since 1883, the basis for an international system for trade in technology in its own rights. The thesis is a dual study of contract and mechanism design for experimental trading with patents. Experimental economics is used as a method to gather data on behavior, varying environmental and institutional parameters. An informal price theory is developed and tested. The experimental research adds to the static analysis literature by using a dynamic analysis in a behaviorally rich experimental system of specialized agents and competitive demand-side bidding on a linear contract, the “patent product.” The microeconomic system has primary and secondary markets, traders, and a linear contract on patents with limitedvalidity and uncertain values. The main results show that risks are shifted away from invention to innovation through demand-side bidding, including traders, creating incentives for increased technologycompetition and economic growth. When a linear contract – fixed fee plus royalty – is used totrade the patents, the fixed fee approaches the blocking value of the patent, in support of theproposed price theory (blocking formally similar to insurance). Such shift in risk bearing maybe beneficial for developing nations in leveraging their human capital through education andincreasing global market access through the patent system. The competitive bidding increasesthe dynamic market efficiency considerably, clearly indicating the dynamic value of the patentsystem. Market efficiency is however still low compared to other typical auction markets,suggesting further experiments to increase efficiency before it will be possible to provide helpful advice about what to do in the field. Dynamic gains increase with increased demandsidebidding and high patent validity. Tentative policy proposals are made for patent,development and innovation policy. The experiments have been carried out at the Interdisciplinary Center for Economic Science, George Mason University, USA. / QC 20100813

No / In this paper we report on a composite index of international patent systems strength for 48 developing and industrialized countries annually from 1998 to 2011. Building upon earlier indices we develop a conceptual framework informed by transaction cost theory and derive measures which emphasize the importance of enforcement-related aspects of the patent system of countries. Findings reveal harmonization of the regulative aspects of patent protection internationally in the post-TRIPs era but not of overall national patent systems. The index should inform studies on the relationship between national patent systems and a range of international business and other phenomena. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A patent is an intellectual property right granted as a reward for the labours of the inventor so as to commercially exploit the invention in return for disclosure of the invention. The benefits of the patent system find perfect expression in the employment situation since the employer is better equipped to exploit the invention through provision of resources and capital whereas the employee is provided with an opportunity to develop his technical know-how. A comparative study of the laws pertaining to employee inventions in the United Kingdom, Federal Republic of Germany and the United States of America reveals a variety of approaches to the subject of employee inventions. The approach of the South African law on the subject is inadequate and legal reform is a necessity. The recommendations for such reform encapsulates a blend of the best features of each of the three national approaches to employee inventions. / Mercentile Law / LL. M. (Law)

O modelo de promoção da inovação em saúde predominante na atualidade é baseado na proteção da propriedade intelectual por meio da concessão de patentes. A patente permite ao seu titular explorar o objeto protegido com exclusividade por um determinado período de tempo, no qual seria obtido o retorno do investimento feito na pesquisa e desenvolvimento do produto. A obtenção de retorno do custo da P&D pela comercialização do produto final, potencializada pelo monopólio conferido pela patente, faz com o que o detentor da tecnologia estabeleça preço de venda elevado. O sistema de patentes potencializa, assim, a maximização de lucros das empresas farmacêuticas, ampliando seu interesse no desenvolvimento de produtos rentáveis e na mercantilização da saúde. Foram identificadas e sistematizadas evidências que demonstram que a aplicação do sistema de patente na área da saúde tem gerado problemas de inovação, ao direcionar recursos de P&D voltados para a produção de produtos rentáveis e não voltados a atender necessidades de saúde; e de acesso, uma vez que o preço elevado excluí milhões de pessoas do consumo do produto. Ficou demonstrada a necessidade de busca de medidas para superação desses problemas. Identificou-se medidas existentes dentro do sistema de patentes que poderiam ser utilizadas para minimizar os problemas identificados em curto e médio prazo, com uma abordagem caso a caso. Optou-se por utilizar uma abordagem sistêmica, demonstrando a necessidade de medidas alternativas ao sistema de patentes para resolução dos problemas identificados a longo prazo. A identificação de medidas alternativas foi realizada por meio da revisão de mais de uma centena de propostas enviadas em chamada aberta e recomendações feitas por diferentes órgãos da Organização Mundial de Saúde no período de 2003 a 2012. As medidas identificadas foram descritas, sistematizadas e analisadas. Conclui-se que a principal proposta atualmente em discussão é a criação de um Fundo Global de P&D, no marco de uma Convenção Global de P&D em saúde, que financiaria a P&D mediante a concessão de prêmios, e não de patentes. Os resultados da P&D seriam tratados como bens públicos, e poderiam ser produzidos por qualquer interessado. Esse modelo visa desvincular os custos da P&D do preço final do produto. Com isso, tem o potencial de solucionar os problemas de inovação e acesso à saúde identificados no sistema de patentes. No entanto, enfrenta grande oposição dos defensores do sistema de patentes, principalmente grandes empresas farmacêuticas interessadas na ampliação da mercantilização da saúde. / The model for promoting innovation in health prevalent nowadays is based on the protection of intellectual property by granting patents. The patent allows the holder to exploit the protected object with exclusivity for a certain period of time, in which he could obtain the return of investment made in research and development. The need to obtain the return of the investments made on R&D by selling the final product, boosted by the monopoly conferred by the patent, allows the patent holder to establish high price. The patent system maximizes profits of pharmaceutical companies, expanding its interest in developing profitable products and in health commodification. We identified and systematized evidence to show that the application of the patent system in the health sector has generated innovation problems, by directing R&D resources to the production of profitable products and not driven by health needs; and access, since the high price excludes millions of product consumption. It was demonstrated the need for seeking measures to overcome these problems. We identified existing measures within the patent system that could be used to alleviate the problems identified in the short and medium term, with a case-by-case approach. We chose to use a systemic approach, demonstrating the need for alternative measures to the patent system to resolve the problems identified in the long-term. The identification of alternative measures was conducted through review of more than a hundred proposals submitted in open call and recommendations made by different bodies of the World Health Organization from 2003 to 2012. The measures identified have been described, systematized and analyzed. It is concluded that the main proposal currently under discussion is the creation of a Global R&D Fund, as part of a Global R&D Convention on health, which would finance R&D by granting prizes, and not patents. The results of R&D would be treated as public goods, and could be produced by any interested party. This model aims to delink the costs of R&D from the final price of the product. Thus, it has the potential to solve the problems of innovation and access to health identified in the patent system. However, it faces strong opposition from advocates of the patent system, especially large pharmaceutical companies interested in expanding health commodification.

O modelo de promoção da inovação em saúde predominante na atualidade é baseado na proteção da propriedade intelectual por meio da concessão de patentes. A patente permite ao seu titular explorar o objeto protegido com exclusividade por um determinado período de tempo, no qual seria obtido o retorno do investimento feito na pesquisa e desenvolvimento do produto. A obtenção de retorno do custo da P&D pela comercialização do produto final, potencializada pelo monopólio conferido pela patente, faz com o que o detentor da tecnologia estabeleça preço de venda elevado. O sistema de patentes potencializa, assim, a maximização de lucros das empresas farmacêuticas, ampliando seu interesse no desenvolvimento de produtos rentáveis e na mercantilização da saúde. Foram identificadas e sistematizadas evidências que demonstram que a aplicação do sistema de patente na área da saúde tem gerado problemas de inovação, ao direcionar recursos de P&D voltados para a produção de produtos rentáveis e não voltados a atender necessidades de saúde; e de acesso, uma vez que o preço elevado excluí milhões de pessoas do consumo do produto. Ficou demonstrada a necessidade de busca de medidas para superação desses problemas. Identificou-se medidas existentes dentro do sistema de patentes que poderiam ser utilizadas para minimizar os problemas identificados em curto e médio prazo, com uma abordagem caso a caso. Optou-se por utilizar uma abordagem sistêmica, demonstrando a necessidade de medidas alternativas ao sistema de patentes para resolução dos problemas identificados a longo prazo. A identificação de medidas alternativas foi realizada por meio da revisão de mais de uma centena de propostas enviadas em chamada aberta e recomendações feitas por diferentes órgãos da Organização Mundial de Saúde no período de 2003 a 2012. As medidas identificadas foram descritas, sistematizadas e analisadas. Conclui-se que a principal proposta atualmente em discussão é a criação de um Fundo Global de P&D, no marco de uma Convenção Global de P&D em saúde, que financiaria a P&D mediante a concessão de prêmios, e não de patentes. Os resultados da P&D seriam tratados como bens públicos, e poderiam ser produzidos por qualquer interessado. Esse modelo visa desvincular os custos da P&D do preço final do produto. Com isso, tem o potencial de solucionar os problemas de inovação e acesso à saúde identificados no sistema de patentes. No entanto, enfrenta grande oposição dos defensores do sistema de patentes, principalmente grandes empresas farmacêuticas interessadas na ampliação da mercantilização da saúde. / The model for promoting innovation in health prevalent nowadays is based on the protection of intellectual property by granting patents. The patent allows the holder to exploit the protected object with exclusivity for a certain period of time, in which he could obtain the return of investment made in research and development. The need to obtain the return of the investments made on R&D by selling the final product, boosted by the monopoly conferred by the patent, allows the patent holder to establish high price. The patent system maximizes profits of pharmaceutical companies, expanding its interest in developing profitable products and in health commodification. We identified and systematized evidence to show that the application of the patent system in the health sector has generated innovation problems, by directing R&D resources to the production of profitable products and not driven by health needs; and access, since the high price excludes millions of product consumption. It was demonstrated the need for seeking measures to overcome these problems. We identified existing measures within the patent system that could be used to alleviate the problems identified in the short and medium term, with a case-by-case approach. We chose to use a systemic approach, demonstrating the need for alternative measures to the patent system to resolve the problems identified in the long-term. The identification of alternative measures was conducted through review of more than a hundred proposals submitted in open call and recommendations made by different bodies of the World Health Organization from 2003 to 2012. The measures identified have been described, systematized and analyzed. It is concluded that the main proposal currently under discussion is the creation of a Global R&D Fund, as part of a Global R&D Convention on health, which would finance R&D by granting prizes, and not patents. The results of R&D would be treated as public goods, and could be produced by any interested party. This model aims to delink the costs of R&D from the final price of the product. Thus, it has the potential to solve the problems of innovation and access to health identified in the patent system. However, it faces strong opposition from advocates of the patent system, especially large pharmaceutical companies interested in expanding health commodification.

Submitted by Ricardo Nunes (rdutranunes@gmail.com) on 2016-03-10T18:17:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ricardo Nunes Mestrado FGV Direito Rio FINAL assinada com ficha catalográfica.pdf: 2044789 bytes, checksum: dd21dcd2f8b074e2fd24e20844d7c0e9 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by BRUNA BARROS (bruna.barros@fgv.br) on 2016-03-15T13:06:11Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ricardo Nunes Mestrado FGV Direito Rio FINAL assinada com ficha catalográfica.pdf: 2044789 bytes, checksum: dd21dcd2f8b074e2fd24e20844d7c0e9 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marcia Bacha (marcia.bacha@fgv.br) on 2016-03-18T12:38:47Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ricardo Nunes Mestrado FGV Direito Rio FINAL assinada com ficha catalográfica.pdf: 2044789 bytes, checksum: dd21dcd2f8b074e2fd24e20844d7c0e9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-18T12:39:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Ricardo Nunes Mestrado FGV Direito Rio FINAL assinada com ficha catalográfica.pdf: 2044789 bytes, checksum: dd21dcd2f8b074e2fd24e20844d7c0e9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-22 / The patent system can be considered a mechanism for regulating innovation. Some law and economics studies analyzing the patent system indicate that the so called 'patent races' – when different individuals or businesses independently invest scarce resources to create and patent a solution to a certain technical problem – are an inefficiency of the patent system. This is because, according to their authors, only the first one to finish the development of a new technical solution and require patent protection to the appropriate authorities could obtain patent protection and explore the invention, so the other competitors would have wasted scarce resources with their researches. Our goal is to verify if these studies are correct, in other words, if 'patent races' are indeed an inefficiency of the patent system, especially considering the legal rules governing the system, the logic concerning the innovation process, game theory and the eventual benefits generated to the society through research and development of new technical solutions. / O sistema de patentes pode ser considerado um instrumento de regulação da inovação. Alguns autores que estudam o sistema de patentes pela ótica da análise econômica do direito indicam que as chamadas 'corridas por patentes' – quando diferentes indivíduos ou empresas, de forma independente, buscam desenvolver e patentear uma solução para determinado problema técnico – configurariam uma ineficiência do sistema de patentes. Isso porque, de acordo com esses autores, somente o primeiro a concluir o desenvolvimento de uma nova solução técnica e requerer proteção junto aos órgãos competentes é que poderia obter uma patente e explorar a invenção, de maneira que os outros competidores teriam simplesmente desperdiçado recursos escassos com suas pesquisas. O objetivo dessa dissertação é verificar se tais análises estão corretas, ou seja, se as 'corridas por patentes' de fato constituem uma ineficiência do sistema de patentes, em especial à luz da legislação pertinente ao tema, da lógica atinente ao processo de inovação, da teoria dos jogos e dos benefícios eventualmente gerados para a sociedade pela pesquisa e desenvolvimento de novas soluções técnicas.