No description available.

The pearlite-to-austenite reversion transformation kinetics under isothermal and continuous heating conditions in a eutectoid plain-carbon steel have been measured, using a dilatometric technique on a Gleeble 1500 Thermomechanical Simulator. The isothermal data was characterized in terms of the transformation start time at temperature for the onset of the P→ γ transformation, and in terms of the Avrami parameters n and b. Under the assumption that the P→ γ transformation was additive, the Scheil equation was applied to the measured isothermal transformation start data to predict the onset of the transformation on continuous heating, and the isothermal phase transformation kinetics were used to predict the continuous heating kinetics. It was found that the kinetic model significantly underpredicted the transformation start time during continuous heating. This was attributed to the large experimental error inherent in the estimation of the isothermal transformation start time, t[formula omitted]. The model's continuous heating kinetic predictions were excellent at low heating rates, but it tended to overpredict the kinetics at higher heating rates. The problem was traced to an observed difference between the measured temperature and the programmed temperature during the high heating rate tests. When the model was modified to incorporate the actual temperature profile, its prediction of the kinetics was considerably improved. Thus the austenite reversion transformation was concluded to be experimentally additive. An average Avrami n value of 2.2 suggested that austenite was nucleating on pearlite colony corners and edges. This conclusion was verified with optical and scanning electron microscopy. Previously published data, which indicated that the pearlite-to-austenite transformation is isokinetic, was found to be based on questionable assumptions. Metallographic information suggests, however, that the nucleation sites are saturated early in the reaction. Furthermore, the isothermal austenite formation data generated in this work was found to meet the effective site saturation criterion for additivity, implying that the austenitization process would be expected to be additive. The effect of starting microstructure was evaluated by performing isothermal and continuous heating tests on two different pearlitic microstructures. It was found that, in agreement with published results, the transformation rate varied in inverse proportion with the pearlite spacing and colony size. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Materials Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Les fils d’acier perlitiques tréfilés ont une limite à rupture en traction qui peut dépasser 4000 MPa. Ils sont ensuite assemblés sous forme de câble, avec des contraintes de traction – torsion – flexion, où les plus résistants peuvent présenter un manque de ductilité.La première partie de ce travail permet d’identifier que la torsion est la sollicitation mécanique la plus critique, et la délamination le mode de rupture associé. Le mécanisme de rupture par délamination en torsion est ensuite étudié, à partir de la compréhension de l’influence du tréfilage sur les contraintes résiduelles, les défauts et fissures en surface, le type de microstructure et les textures. Cette approche démontre l’existence d’une taille de défauts et d’une contrainte critiques pour l’apparition de fissures de délamination. Les phénomènes de déformation et de rupture sont finalement décrits à l’échelle de la microstructure. Trois étapes sont nécessaires à la délamination : la localisation de la déformation et une fissuration longitudinale, la propagation d’une fissure instable dans la section, et la propagation longitudinale de la fissure. Si la première étape est associée aux imbrications des microstructures en « ciels de Van Gogh » et à l’anisotropie de structure, la seconde étape est plus directement liée aux niveaux de contraintes dans les zones de localisation en cisaillement et à la taille des défauts propagés. La dernière étape résulte des contraintes de cisaillement en jeu et de l’anisotropie microstructurale.En conclusion, la mise en évidence des étapes d’amorçage et de propagation des fissures permet de prouver l’impact du champ de contraintes résiduelles et de la taille des défauts sur la délamination en torsion des fils perlitiques tréfilés, et d’identifier le rôle essentiel de la microstructure à l’échelle locale. Une des perspectives serait alors la recherche de microstructures moins sensibles à la localisation de la déformation, ainsi que la propagation de fissures. / Drawn pearlitic steel wires have a remarkable tensile strength, which can reach 4000 MPa. After drawing, however, wires have to pass through the cabling step where they undergo traction – torsion – bending solicitations. Under such loading conditions the wires that are the most effective in tension tend to lack ductility.First, torsion was identified as the most critical solicitation, and delamination as the associated rupture mode. Then, the formation of delamination cracks in torsion was examined, as well as the impact of some drawing parameters on properties influencing the formation of cracks, such as residual stresses, defects and cracks on the wire surface, microstructure type and textures. Conclusions were drawn on the existence of a critical defect size and residual stress level for the propagation of a delamination crack transverse to the wire section. A study at the microscopic scale showed three successive steps to be needed for a delamination crack to propagate: shear localization accompanied with longitudinal cracking, unsteady crack propagation across the wire’s cross-section and longitudinal crack propagation. A curled microstructure, also named “Van Gogh skies”, in addition to structural anisotropy make shear deformation in the wire section difficult, and thus favor localization. The stability of the crack across the section is most influenced by macroscopic mechanical parameters such as stress level in localization’s zones and size of propagated cracks. The last longitudinal propagation step is more related to the torsional shear stress and to the microstructural anisotropy.In conclusion, a phenomenology for delamination of high strength pearlitic steel wires was outlined. It allows one to demonstrate the impact of the residual stress field and of the crack size in addition to identifying the influence of the microstructure. An interesting future perspective of this study could be the investigation of microstructures less sensitive to shear localization and to crack propagation.

Thesis, (Ph. D.)--Oregon Graduate Institute of Science and Technology, 1996.

As indústrias que desenvolvem motores de combustão interna têm como preocupação atual prover motores que sejam cada vez menos poluentes, uma vez que a preocupação com a preservação do meio ambiente é intensa em todo o mundo. No entanto, com o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias destinadas à redução das emissões, a condensação dos gases, provenientes da combustão, está sendo promovida dentro das câmaras de combustão dos veículos. Ácidos, como sulfúrico e nítrico, são gerados pela condensação destes gases. Esta condensação está associada às altas taxas de recirculação de gases de escape, conhecido como EGR, (termo em inglês para Exhaust Gas Recirculation). Consequentemente, problemas de corrosão nos componentes do motor estão aumentando, especialmente em camisas de cilindro em ferro fundido. Neste estudo, foi investigada a resistência à corrosão de dois ferros fundidos, um de microestrutura perlítica e o outro com microestrutura bainítica, em soluções de condensado natural e sintético de motores movidos a diesel. Os resultados foram associados às microestruturas e as composições químicas dos materiais estudados. Resultados de testes de imersão e ensaios de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, bem como de curvas de polarização potenciodinâmicas, indicaram que os dois materiais não apresentam resistência à corrosão nos meios de ensaio adotados. O ataque intenso da matriz observado em ambos os materiais observado pelos ensaios de imersão, mostraram a atuação do mecanismo eletroquímico de corrosão por grafitização. Este mecanismo causa o ataque localizado e destrutivo da matriz de ferrita (-Fe), que funciona como anodo enquanto as grafitas atuam como áreas catódicas. Enquanto em meio ácido não foi possível observar uma diferenciação entre os dois tipos de ferros fundidos estudados, em meio neutro e aerado, o ferro fundido bainítico mostrou resistência à corrosão superior à do ferro fundido perlítico. / The industries that develop internal combustion engines have the current concern on providing less polluting engines, due to the worldwide apprehension on the environment preservation. However, with the development of new technologies to reduce emissions, condensation of gases from combustion is being promoted within the combustion chambers of vehicles. Acids, such as sulfuric and nitric, are generated by these gases condensation. This condensation is associated with high rates of exhaust gas recirculation, known as EGR, (the English term for Exhaust Gas Recirculation). Consequently, corrosion problems of engine components are increasing, especially in cylinder liners made with cast iron. In this study, the corrosion resistance of two cast irons, one with a pearlitic microstructure and the other with a bainitic one, has been investigated in the natural solution obtained by condensation of the gases from diesel engines combustion or in a synthetic solution that simulates the composition of the condensate gases. The results were associated with the chemical compositions and microstructures of the materials studied. The results of immersion tests and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy tests, as well as potentiodynamic polarization curves, indicated that both materials do not exhibit significant differences in their corrosion resistance in the solutions adopted for testing. The intense attack of the matrix observed during immersion tests showed the electrochemical corrosion mechanism of graphitization in both materials. This mechanism causes localized attack of the ferrite matrix ( -Fe), which acts as the anodic areas whereas the graphite act as the cathodic ones. Though in acid medium has not been possible to observe a distinction between the corrosion resistance of the two types of cast irons studied, in neutral and aerated environment, the bainitic cast iron showed higher corrosion resistance comparatively to the pearlitic cast iron .

As indústrias que desenvolvem motores de combustão interna têm como preocupação atual prover motores que sejam cada vez menos poluentes, uma vez que a preocupação com a preservação do meio ambiente é intensa em todo o mundo. No entanto, com o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias destinadas à redução das emissões, a condensação dos gases, provenientes da combustão, está sendo promovida dentro das câmaras de combustão dos veículos. Ácidos, como sulfúrico e nítrico, são gerados pela condensação destes gases. Esta condensação está associada às altas taxas de recirculação de gases de escape, conhecido como EGR, (termo em inglês para Exhaust Gas Recirculation). Consequentemente, problemas de corrosão nos componentes do motor estão aumentando, especialmente em camisas de cilindro em ferro fundido. Neste estudo, foi investigada a resistência à corrosão de dois ferros fundidos, um de microestrutura perlítica e o outro com microestrutura bainítica, em soluções de condensado natural e sintético de motores movidos a diesel. Os resultados foram associados às microestruturas e as composições químicas dos materiais estudados. Resultados de testes de imersão e ensaios de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, bem como de curvas de polarização potenciodinâmicas, indicaram que os dois materiais não apresentam resistência à corrosão nos meios de ensaio adotados. O ataque intenso da matriz observado em ambos os materiais observado pelos ensaios de imersão, mostraram a atuação do mecanismo eletroquímico de corrosão por grafitização. Este mecanismo causa o ataque localizado e destrutivo da matriz de ferrita (-Fe), que funciona como anodo enquanto as grafitas atuam como áreas catódicas. Enquanto em meio ácido não foi possível observar uma diferenciação entre os dois tipos de ferros fundidos estudados, em meio neutro e aerado, o ferro fundido bainítico mostrou resistência à corrosão superior à do ferro fundido perlítico. / The industries that develop internal combustion engines have the current concern on providing less polluting engines, due to the worldwide apprehension on the environment preservation. However, with the development of new technologies to reduce emissions, condensation of gases from combustion is being promoted within the combustion chambers of vehicles. Acids, such as sulfuric and nitric, are generated by these gases condensation. This condensation is associated with high rates of exhaust gas recirculation, known as EGR, (the English term for Exhaust Gas Recirculation). Consequently, corrosion problems of engine components are increasing, especially in cylinder liners made with cast iron. In this study, the corrosion resistance of two cast irons, one with a pearlitic microstructure and the other with a bainitic one, has been investigated in the natural solution obtained by condensation of the gases from diesel engines combustion or in a synthetic solution that simulates the composition of the condensate gases. The results were associated with the chemical compositions and microstructures of the materials studied. The results of immersion tests and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy tests, as well as potentiodynamic polarization curves, indicated that both materials do not exhibit significant differences in their corrosion resistance in the solutions adopted for testing. The intense attack of the matrix observed during immersion tests showed the electrochemical corrosion mechanism of graphitization in both materials. This mechanism causes localized attack of the ferrite matrix ( -Fe), which acts as the anodic areas whereas the graphite act as the cathodic ones. Though in acid medium has not been possible to observe a distinction between the corrosion resistance of the two types of cast irons studied, in neutral and aerated environment, the bainitic cast iron showed higher corrosion resistance comparatively to the pearlitic cast iron .

L’effet de l’espacement interlamellaire sur le comportement sous chargements monotone et cyclique de l’acier perlitique C70 a été étudié. Une démarche expérimentale conjuguant les essais de traction « in-situ » sous DRX et traction « in-situ » sous MEB couplées à une modélisation auto-cohérente a été adoptée. Les essais ont été effectués sur deux microstructures, à deux espacements interlamellaires différents. Il a été montré que l'écoulement plastique de la perlite est contrôlé par celui de la ferrite lequel est gouverné par l’espacement interlamellaire, il en est de même pour les distributions des contraintes résiduelles. La modélisation auto-cohérente met en évidence l'anisotropie élastique à l'échelle des phases et l'effet de l'espacement interlamellaire sur les rigidités et les limites d'écoulement directionnelles. L'analyse microstructurale des mécanismes de déformation montre que la déformation plastique de la perlite est caractérisée par le développement de bandes de cisaillement. Ces bandes sont le siège de l'amorçage des fissures par cisaillement des lamelles de cémentite pour les taux de déformation élevés. L’effet de l’espacement interlamellaire sur le comportement en fatigue giga-cyclique a été étudié par des essais de fatigue sous une fréquence de 20 KHz. Des différences de 30 MPa, pour la perlite à SP= 230 nm et de 50 MPa pour la perlite à SP= 170 nm entre les limites de fatigue conventionnelle (106cycles) et giga-cyclique (109cycles) ont été obtenues. L’effet de l’espacement interlamellaire sur le comportement en fatigue apparait peu significatif comparativement aux caractéristiques mécaniques de traction. Les limites de fatigue giga-cycliques obtenues intègrent l’effet bénéfique des contraintes résiduelles stabilisées ainsi que les effets d’écrouissage induit par l’usinage et par écrouissage cyclique. L’examen des sites d’amorçage, révèle essentiellement un amorçage en surface dans le domaine méga-cyclique et mixte en surface et/ou en sous-couches dans le domaine giga-cyclique. Ces résultats peuvent être interprétés sur la base des effets des propriétés de surface stabilisées et de la microstructure. Le recours à un critère de fatigue de type Goodman permet d’identifier d’une manière qualitative la contribution des différents facteurs d’influence, ci-dessus cités, dans l’amorçage des fissures de fatigue. / The effect of interlamellar spacing on the monotonic and cyclic behavior of C70 pearltic steel was investigated. Tensile tests under scanning electron microscope and under X-ray diffraction coupled with self-consistent model have been used. Tests have been carried out on two microstructures with different interlamellar spacing. It has been demonstrated that pearlite yielding is controlled by ferrite critical shear stress), which depend on the interlamellar spacing. The pearlite deforms inhomogeneously under tensile loading by localized shearing in intense shear bands. In the large shear bands, parallel cementite plate offsets before fracture and contributes to the occurrence of localized damage. The residual stress in ferrite is higher for the coarse pearlite. Giga-cycle fatigue tests were performed to identify the effect of interlamellar spacing on the fatigue behavior; tests were performed at a frequency of 20 KHz. The difference of the fatigue strength between 106 and 109 cycles is about 30 MPa for coarse pearlite and 50 MPa for fine pearlite. The effect of interlamellar spacing on the mega-cycle and giga-cycle fatigue limit appears not significant compared to the mechanical characteristics. Giga-cycle fatigue limit obtained includes the beneficial effect of stabilized residual stress. It also includes the effect of hardening induced by machining and cyclic hardening. However, any significant effect of interlamellar spacing on the C70 fatigue limits has been shown. SEM examinations shows that failures initiated on surface for the mega-cycle regime and on different sites for the giga-cycle regime. The experimental results can be interpreted based on the effects of stabilized surface properties and microstructure. The use of a fatigue Goodman criterion would identify qualitatively the contribution of different factors, cited above, in the fatigue life.

Tensile strength modelling is usually done to predict the mechanical properties of lamellargraphite iron considering microstructural features. This work attempts to create a simplifiedmodel incorporating cooling rate and solidification time without considering themicrostructural features. This model will save time and cost in industry with the presence of acommercially available software such as Magmasoft which simulates solidification time andcooling rate. A plate model was designed for this purpose as the test geometry to createvariation in solidification time and cooling rate. By altering fraction solid, thermalconductivity, specific heat capacity in Magmasoft, a good fit was created between simulatedcooling curve and experimental cooling curves. The experimental UTS data of samples fromthree moulds were investigated and a regression model was created using statistics toolMinitab. The effect of solidification time and alloying on the graphite length Lmax was studiedfor twelve samples from each mould. Quantification of the effect of cooling rate and alloyingon the pearlitic properties of grey iron like matrix microhardness, pearlite inter-lamellarspacing was also investigated in this work.The developed model has sixty three percent correlation and explains UTS well in terms ofsolidification time and cooling rate. Microhardness measurements show that there is an almostlinear relationship between the cooling rate and microhardness of the matrix structure.Microhardness data also provides an overview of the pearlite fineness/interlamellar spacing.Analysis of the outliers showed that the presence of free ferrite on a fully pearlitic structurereduces the UTS significantly. Comparison of the regression model obtained from this workwith previous work showed that, there is a reduction in the predicted strength with this model.The effort to identify the reason for this reduction was not successful and needs furtherinvestigation. Pearlite inter-lamellar spacing measurement was not accurate. The relationshipbetween pearlite interlamellar spacing and matrix microhardness needs to be investigated inthe future using a better technique for pearlite spacing measurement. This will be useful tounderstand the effect of cooling rate on pearlite spacing and consequently on the UTS of greycast iron. / Draghållfasthetsmodellering görs vanligtvis för att förutsäga de mekaniska egenskaperna av lamellärt grafitjärn. Detta arbete har försökt att skapa en förenklad modell som innehåller kylhastighet och stelningstid utan att överväga mikrostrukturella egenskaper. Modellen kommer att spara tid och kostnad i industrin tillsammans med kommersiellt tillgänglig mjukvara som Magmasoft som simulerar stelningstiden och kylningshastighet. En plattformig modell utformades för detta ändamål som testgeometrin för att skapa variation i stelningstid och kylningshastighet. Genom att ändra fraktion fast fas, termisk konduktivitet och specifik värmekapacitet i Magmasoft skapades en bra anpassning mellan simulerade och experimentella kylkurvor. Experimentella draghållfasthetsdata (UTS) för prover från tre gjutningar undersöktes och en regressionsmodell skapades med hjälp av statistikverktyg Minitab. Effekten av stelningstid och legeringshalt på grafitlängden Lmax studerades för tolv prover från varje form. Effekten av kylhastighet och legering på de perlitiska egenskaperna hos grått järn som matrismikrohårdhet och perlitlamellavstånd undersöktes också i detta arbete.  Den utvecklade modellen har sextiotre procent korrelation och förklarar UTS väl med avseende på stelningstid och kylningshastighet. Mikrohårdhetsmätningar visar att det finns ett nästan linjärt förhållande mellan kylhastigheten och mikrohårdheten hos matrisstrukturen. Mikrohårdhetsdata ger också en översikt över perlitens finhet/interlamellära avstånd. Analys av outliers visade att närvaron av fri ferrit på en fullständigt perlitisk struktur minskar UTS betydligt. Jämförelse av regressionsmodellen erhållen från detta arbete med tidigare arbete visade det att det finns en minskning av den förutsagda styrkan med denna modell. Ansträngningen att identifiera orsaken till denna minskning var inte framgångsrik och behöver ytterligare undersökas. Perlit mellan lamellär avståndsmätning var inte korrekt. Förhållandet mellan perlitens interlamellära avstånd och matrismikrohet måste undersökas i framtiden med hjälp av en bättre teknik för perlit-avståndsmätning. Detta kommer att vara användbart att förstå effekten av kylhastighet på perlitavståndet och följaktligen på UTS av grå gjutjärn

Les câbles d’acier sont utilisés comme renforts au sein des pneumatiques poids lourds, et servent notamment à supporter les efforts dus à la pression de gonflage et au poids du véhicule. Un câble est un ensemble de fils d’acier perlitique assemblés en hélices sur différentes couches. Il existe donc de nombreuses possibilités d’assemblage pour définir l’architecture d’un câble. Lors de leur sollicitation en service, les câbles sont soumis à des chargements cycliques à l’origine d’un endommagement en fatigue. Dans un contexte de réduction de la consommation et d’allègement des véhicules, la compréhension des mécanismes impliqués représente donc un enjeu majeur pour les manufacturiers de pneumatiques, en vue d’optimiser l’architecture des câbles vis-à-vis de la tenue en fatigue. Un essai de flexion cyclique représentatif de la sollicitation en service a été mis au point. Les éprouvettes testées sont des nappes composites constituées de câbles alignés au sein d’une matrice de gomme. Des essais interrompus à différents stades de l’endommagement suivis d’observations ex-situ (tomographie à rayon X, MEB) ont été réalisés. Un modèle de simulation par éléments finis de la nappe composite a été développé en vue d’étudier les interactions filgomme. La comparaison des observations aux simulations a permis de comprendre la cinétique de l’endommagement des renforts lors d’une sollicitation de flexion cyclique.L’étude de chacun des mécanismes susceptibles de contribuer à l’endommagement d’un câble a permis d’expliquer la meilleure tenue en fatigue des architectures pénétrées par la gomme. Un outil probabiliste de prédiction de la durée de vie des câbles basé sur la propagation des défauts en surface des fils a été développé. / Steel cables are used as reinforcements in heavy truck tires, in particular to support the forces resulting from the tire pressure and the vehicle's weight. A cable is a set of pearlitic steel wires assembled in helical form on different layers. There are therefore many assembly possibilities to define the cable architecture. The cables are subjected to cyclic loadings during service, resulting in fatigue damage. In a context of reduced fuel consumption and lighter vehicles, understanding the mechanisms involved is thus a major challenge for tire manufacturers, in order to optimize the architecture of cables with respect to fatigue resistance. A cyclic bending test representative of mechanical in-service loading has been developed. The tested specimens are composite layers made of cables aligned within an elastomer matrix. Interrupted tests at different stages of damage followed by ex-situ observations (X-ray tomography, SEM) were performed. A finite element model of the composite layer has been developed in order to understand wire-rubber interactions. The comparison of the observations with the simulations made it possible to understand the kinetics of cable damage during cyclic bending loading.The study of each of the mechanisms likely to contribute to the cable damage has made it possible to explain the better fatigue resistance of the architectures penetrated by the rubber. A stochastic cable fatigue life model based on wire surface defect propagation has been developed.

L’objectif de ce travail est d’améliorer la compréhension des phénomènes de Corrosion Sous Contrainte (CSC) susceptibles d’être rencontrés sur les fils d’armures des conduites flexibles, faits d’aciers ferrito-perlitiques. Dans l’annulaire des conduites flexibles, l’environnement chimique des aciers est constitué d’une « eau de mer » confinée et saturée en CO2. Celui-ci favorise la formation d’une couche protectrice de sidérite qui semble avoir un effet déterminant sur la vitesse de corrosion de l’acier. Les conditions de service entrainant des fluctuations de l’environnement ou des contraintes appliquées s’ajoutant à des contraintes résiduelles peuvent provoquer la rupture des conditions d’équilibre entre l’acier et son environnement protecteur, et amorcer ainsi la CSC.Les paramètres microstructuraux et mécaniques qui gouvernent l’amorçage et la propagation de fissures par CSC dans les aciers ferrito-perlitiques dans un milieu confiné simulé sont identifiés au moyen d’essais de traction lente menés sous différents potentiels électrochimiques sur des éprouvettes lisses et micro-entaillées. La phase d’amorçage met en jeu des effets de synergie entre la localisation de la plasticité et la dissolution de l’acier. Cependant, des effets de l’hydrogène doivent être pris en compte dans la propagation des fissures. L’hydrogène, au travers d’interactions hydrogène/plasticité, entraine l’avancée des fissures. Il a été également démontré que l’emploi de microstructures particulières peut favoriser ou retarder les effets de l’hydrogène sans pour autant affecter la limite d’élasticité de la même manière. / In confined solutions containing dissolved CO2, ferrito-pearlitic steels can suffer Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). We could find such situations in the annulus of flexible pipes. In these conditions, a protective corrosion product, the siderite FeCO3, is formed on the steel surface decreasing the corrosion rate. In service, environment fluctuation (such as pH, potential…) and/or an addition of applied stress can disturb the balance between the steel and this protective film, causing the fracture of the latter and leading to SCC.The objective is to understand the mechanism of SCC in such environments and to identify the parameters controlling the initiation and the propagation of cracks. Slow strain rate tensile tests in confined solution are carried out on smooth and notched specimens to study crack initiation and propagation. Crack initiation is controlled by synergistic effects between localized plasticity and the dissolution processes. However, hydrogen effects must be considered to explain crack propagation. Through hydrogen/plasticity interactions, hydrogen ingress leads to crack propagation. It is also demonstrated that the design and use of specific microstructures may promote or delay hydrogen effects, without affecting the yield strength in the same manner. Finally, the influence of a torsional pre-strain on the susceptibility to Environmentally-Assisted Cracking of a cold-worked ferrito-pearlitic steel is studied.