Doctor of Philosophy / School of Family Studies and Human Services / Bronwyn S. Fees / Character development is core in building a moral society and in the development of an individual (Lickona, 1996; Park, 2009). Building character is a continual developmental process across the lifespan and is subject to a myriad of influences. Character is often defined as the respect an individual has for the rules of the community and cultural surroundings (Lerner, 2007; Lerner et al., 2006; Phelps et al., 2009; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003; Snyder & Flay, 2012). Lickona’s theory of character (1999) distinguishes character development as a continual work in progress, and the morality of an individual contributes “to the cognitive element of character” (2001, p. 246). Additionally, Bronfenbrenner’s (1986; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998) bioecological model more specifically identifies the potential relationships within the microsystem as well as between the elements of the microsystem and youth that affect character. The purpose of this study was first, to examine the predictive nature of specific elements of the microsystem including peer relationships, parental involvement, and adult mentors on the development of character during adolescence and, secondly, to examine the change in variance explained by these specific elements on the development of character over time during the high school years. Data to address these questions were drawn from Lerner and colleagues’ (2005) 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses reveal parental involvement to be significant in predicting youth’s self-assessed character during their senior year, and each year between the freshman and senior years. The effects of peer relationships are significant only during the freshmen, sophomore, and senior years. Adult mentors reach positive significance only during the freshman year. When control variables are added, adult mentors are negatively significant during the junior and senior years. Results suggest parent’ involvement in predicting character is more enduring than peer relationships, which is consistent with previous research (Lickona, 2001; Park, 2004). With adult mentors reaching significance for only one year and with the other two years being negatively significant, the results of this study contradict what other research suggests as adult mentors’ integral role in youth development, particularly with frequent engagement in extracurricular activities wherein youth interact with adult advisors. Additional research is needed to understand specifically the role of adult mentors in character development, as well as other developmental areas of high school adolescents.

Adolescence can be a difficult time for youth, and several additional factors intensify the stress and risk associated with adolescence for refugee youth. Refugee adolescents, for example, often have to learn and speak different languages in different contexts, establish new peer relationships, and adjust to new cultural norms. It is important to understand how such cultural negotiations influence refugee youth's educational experiences because improved educational outcomes for youth are associated with improved health outcomes. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the relationships between peer connectedness, parental monitoring, academic self-efficacy, educational barriers, and school engagement with a sample of refugee adolescents. Research hypotheses were tested using exploratory factor analysis and bivariate correlational, multiple regression, and MANOVA analyses. Data were collected from a sample of 120 refugee adolescent participants who were between 13-18 years old and arrived in the United States from Bhutan, Burma, Somalia, Congo, Ethiopia, Sudan, or Iraq. Refugee adolescent participants and their families were recruited from Ecumenical Refugee and Immigrant Services (ERIS) and the African Community Center (ACC), which are refugee resettlement agencies located in Denver, Colorado. Language interpreters were recruited to assist with communication during data collection. Study findings showed that (a) a significant amount of variance in academic self-efficacy was uniquely accounted for by participants' educational barriers, school engagement, and parental monitoring, (b) a significant amount of variance in educational barriers was uniquely accounted for by ethnically similar peer connectedness, ethnically dissimilar peer connectedness, academic self-efficacy, and school engagement, (c) peer connectedness and educational barriers were positively, rather than inversely, correlated, (d) a significant amount of variance in school engagement was accounted for by educational barriers and academic self-efficacy, and (e) group differences in the level of relationships between variables were found as a function of current geographic location. Research implications include re-evaluating the use of negatively-worded and confusing items within the measures and collaborating with community partners when working with vulnerable populations. Practice implications include involving parents to decrease educational barriers through collaboration and providing educational support to foster success within the school and community.

The primary purpose of this study was to utilize an ecological-transactional theoretical framework and an existing longitudinal data set to examine the relationships among neighborhood context, family supervision, association with deviant peers, and patterns of substance use during adolescence. Participants included 821 youth from the Longitudinal Cohort Study of the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) data set. Data include primary caregiver and youth self-report measures of adult supervision, peer associations, and substance use. Data also include community survey and systematic social observation measures of neighborhood social processes such as collective efficacy, social disorder and social capital, neighborhood disadvantage, policing, and perceived danger collected from 1994-2001 in the city of Chicago. Latent growth curve modeling analyses were used to answer the research questions. Study results were significant associations between neighborhood social processes and substance use. Contrary to previous findings, more positive neighborhood social processes were related to higher levels of substance use for females. For both the African American/Black and Hispanic/Latino groups, deviant peer associations were related to higher levels of substance use at age 12. For the Hispanic/Latino group, higher neighborhood socioeconomic status was related to greater increases in substance use over time. Study results suggest the continued importance of research to discover sex and ethnic variation in associations among contextual influences and adolescent substance use. The current study makes a significant contribution to extant literature by examining the influence of neighborhood social processes, deviant peer associations, and supervision on substance use trajectories. Including peers, parental, and neighborhood factors&mdashin one model&mdashprovided a more comprehensive examination of how contextual influences impact the development of adolescent substance use. In addition, using a multilevel analysis with a diverse, longitudinal data set provided further insights into understanding ethnic and gender variation in the development of adolescents' substance use. Supplemental files include description of PHDCN scale items, HOME measure, Deviance of Peers measure, and items from the Substance Use Interview.

Five experiments were conducted to investigate psychological determinants of food preference in five to seven year-old children. The research was informed by: (i) the general literature on human food preference, and (ii) behaviour analytic theory and research, particularly that on rule-governance. Experiment 1, using a between groups design, examined the impact of in vivo peer behaviour on novel food consumption. Children exposed to "positive" peers avidly consuming a target food tended to prefer that food. Conversely, children who observed "negative" peers, rejecting the food, consumed little: it was also shown that these negative effects could be largely overridden by subsequent exposure to positive peers. Experiments 2 to 5 utilised multiple baseline designs to evaluate the effectiveness of a series of multi-component interventions designed to promote consumption of previously refused fruits and vegetables. To maximise ecological validity and long-term maintenance of behaviour change these experiments were conducted in subjects' homes in the context of the evening meal. During Experiment 2 an intervention incorporating video modelling, contingent rewards, and instructions effectively promoted consumption of three named foods. However, little generalisation to the consumption of other foods was evident. In Experiment 3 a similar intervention targeted broader food categories (vegetables and fruit) and this was effective in promoting consumption of up to 12 foods. Maintenance interventions utilising token rewards were effective in promoting long term consumption. During Experiment 4, written instructions and contingent rewards, without video modelling, were relatively effective in promoting fruit, but not vegetable consumption. During Experiment 5, instructions and video modelling, without contingent rewards had a negligible effect on the consumption of either food category. The results demonstrated that, contrary to the widely held belief within the human food preference literature, interventions utilising contingent rewards can be very effective in modifying food preferences. In discussing the results consideration was given to: (i) the role of rulegovernance in ensuring effective reward use; (ii) maintenance and generalisation of behaviour change; and (iii) the outcome measure most appropriate for food preference research.

abstract: Segregation into own-gender peer groups, a common developmental pattern, has many potentially negative short- and long-term consequences. Understanding the social cognitive processes underlying intergroup processes may lead to a better understanding of, and a chance to improve, intergroup relations between boys and girls; however, until recently gender-typed cognitions have not received a lot of attention. Therefore, in two complementary studies, this dissertation examines developmental patterns and predictors of a particular type of social cognition, gender-based relationship efficacy (GBRE). The first study examines mean-level and interindividual stability patterns of GBRE longitudinally in two developmental periods: childhood and pre-adolescence. Specifically, the first study examined children’s and pre-adolescents’ GBRE toward own- (GBRE-Own) and other-gender (GBRE-Other) peers over a one-year period. Using a four factor repeated measures analysis of variance, the results indicated that GBRE-Own is significantly higher than GBRE-Other across both cohorts. GBRE-Other, however, increased from childhood to pre-adolescence. Stability and cross-lag effects were examined using a multi-group panel analysis and revealed that GBRE-Own and GBRE-Other were stable. Additionally, high levels of GBRE-Own led to lower levels of GBRE-Other one year later, but high levels of GBRE-Other led to higher levels of GBRE-Own. Implications for understanding segregation processes and suggestions for future research are discussed. The second study examined potential affective/cognitive, behavioral, and contextual predictors of GBRE-Other in pre-adolescence. Several hypotheses were tested using panel models and regression analyses, but there was limited support. Results indicated that GBRE-Other predicted more positive attitudes toward other-gender peers and higher preferences for other-gender peer interaction and that, for boys, anxious attitudes toward other-gender peers negatively predicted GBRE-Other and, for girls, parental attitudes toward their children’s other-gender friendships negatively predicted GBRE-Other. The lack of significant findings in the second study should be interpreted cautiously. In general, GBRE is an important construct and more research is needed to fully understand the developmental progression and implications. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Family and Human Development 2017

This study investigated the adolescent self-concept. The concern was with the relationship between peer status as measured by a reputation scale and self-concept as measured by how an individual feels he is perceived by others.

Thesis advisor: Eric Dearing / For many children, preschool classrooms are a key context for early learning. While early education researchers and policy makers have focused considerable attention on the instructional and structural aspects of preschool classrooms, classic child development theory also points to the important role that peers play in early learning experiences (e.g., Vygotsky, 1978). Although best practices for early childhood education emphasize peer learning opportunities (e.g., Williams, 2001), adults, including early childhood teachers, often underestimate preschool children’s abilities to participate in cooperative interactions (Howes & Tonyan, 1999). And, within the empirical literature, many aspects of cooperative learning among very young peers remain poorly understood. This research aims to help build the knowledge base on peers and learning in early childhood. Seventy-two preschool children (mean age= 4.66 years) participated in a study designed to target counting skills through early math learning games that were adapted from empirically-supported curricula. In dyads (n=36), the children completed six game play sessions across three weeks with all sessions video-recorded and sessions one, three, and five coded for peer cooperative behaviors. The children’s general math skills were assessed prior to the first game play session and their counting skills were assessed after completion of the sixth game play session. The average rates of occurrence, and variations therein, of dyads’ peer cooperative behaviors during game play were examined. Using multi-level regression modeling to account for the dyadic nesting of these data, associations between cooperative behaviors and post-study counting skills were also explored. Results showed that these very young children demonstrated all of the peer cooperation behaviors of interest, including dyadic regulatory states and discrete peer cooperation behaviors (although the latter occurred less frequently than the former). Evidence that dyads’ peer supportive behaviors were significantly associated with their post-test counting scores was also found. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2019. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

abstract: Prejudice and discrimination toward gender non-conforming individuals is prevalent and extreme in today’s society. This prejudice can manifest in social exclusion, bullying, and victimization, or physical and sexual assault, and can result in negative social, psychological, academic, and physical health outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety, suicidality). Thus, it is important to understand the perpetrators of gender expression-based aggression and discrimination. In two studies, I addressed how and why people experience prejudice toward gender non-conforming individuals. Using an affordance management theoretical framework, Study 1 identified threats young adults perceived from gender non-conforming peers. There were differences in perceived threats to personal freedoms, social coordination, and values for gender conforming and non-conforming peers, and these perceptions differed by the political ideology of the perceiver. Study 2 explored children’s threat perceptions associated with gender non-conformity. Children perceived threats to social coordination from gender non-conforming peers but not threats to moral values. Results from both studies supported the use of this theoretical framework for studying prejudice toward gender non-conformity. Together, these studies provide unique information about adults’ and children’s reasons for prejudice toward gender non-conforming peers. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Family and Human Development 2020

Autism Spectrum Disorder (autism) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social skills differences which can interfere with success in developing or maintaining relationships. Social skills training may promote more satisfying change in social interactions for individuals with autism, especially if they already have age-appropriate cognitive and language abilities. Social skills training is a typical approach for addressing social skills needs for many individuals with autism. In some instances, in-person social skills training or groups may not be readily available because of geographical, transportation, or other barriers. Delivering social skills training online is one way to increase access to intervention for individuals without feasible access to in-person social skills groups. However, very little is known about the untapped potential for interactive online social skills groups to provide similar benefits to in-person groups. We conducted a study delivering the same curriculum (UCLA PEERS®) in two modalities -- in person (per the manual) and online (same curriculum, delivered in a live interactive online teleconference environment). Pre- and post-intervention parent report measures were used to assess autism symptoms and social skills were compared across groups. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to identify any significant differences between the two groups. Under analysis, the interaction term indicated no significant differential change over time according to group membership (time by group). This indicates that there were no statistically significant differences between online and in-person groups with the single exception of one subtest score, the detrimental behavior subscale. There were many main effects for time in both groups which indicates positive social improvements over time occurred in both in-person and online groups, primarily with similar trajectories. Our objective is to provide evidence that the outcomes of both modalities were not significantly different. The results indicate that this is generally the case according to our study. It is interesting to note that while students were satisfied with the social validity of either delivery modality, parents were generally more satisfied with the online delivery of social skills.

In Canada, the natural birth rate is declining in part because of delayed childbirth (Canada 2016). As a result of their decision to postpone parenthood and their increasing age, more couples are turning to assisted reproductive treatment (ART) including in-vitro fertilization (IVF) to conceive. The risk of IVF failure, the detrimental mental health outcomes (i.e. depression) associated with infertility, and the strain on physical, financial, spiritual, and emotional resources contribute to heightened stress for IVF patients, and compel them to identify and leverage psychosocial supports. Since the quality of social support individuals receive depends on the nature of communication they share with the receiver, it is important to consider how disclosure builds social support. Common social support channels such as spouses, family, friends, counsellors, and support groups and their associated communication patterns have already been explored in the fertility literature whereas processes integral to peer relationships, a support that women have signaled as promising, remain uncovered. It remains important to understand the nature of peer relationships in the context of infertility. This dissertation explores how in-vitro fertilization (IVF) users approached their decision to disclose to a peer and carried out their communication. Guided by the Disclosure-Decision Making Model (DD-MM) it starts by showing how IVF patients assess their support needs, and peers as recipients before communication takes place. It then delineates how these women execute their communication with specific focus on the modalities of their process and the scope of the disclosures of fertility-related and non-fertility related information between them. A sample population of 23 first-time and recurring IVF patients were interviewed. Results show that prior to disclosing to a peer, women reflect on information about their condition and their personal support needs on the basis of the adequacy of their social circles and perceptions of stigma, the benefits and drawbacks of secrecy versus transparency, and their personal motivation to leverage peer support. They also assess their peers, considering diverse pathways of connection as well as desirable peer traits which include IVF experience, other common ground and transparency. Relating to their communication, patients showed a distinct capacity to communicate with their peers and meet their support needs. The IVF patient-peer communication process is characterized through immediate disclosure transitions and backwards introductions, a solid mutual understanding when it comes to engagement and disengagement boundaries, a preference for digital communication via texting and instant messaging, and the coverage of a broad range of fertility topics in reciprocal conversations. The findings also show however that the majority of women choose to distance themselves and limit their conversations during the post embryo transfer waiting period and refrain from discussing pregnancy testing as a form of self- preservation. IVF patients share a natural relationship with peers. This dissertation points to opportunities to facilitate patient-peer relationships and enhance the fertility-care experience overall by embracing: the transparency of patients, better coping resources for men, safe places to personally connect in clinic and support group settings, and roles for all IVF patients in social support regardless of their outcome. It also suggests that patient-peer support is a pragmatic and flexible support channel that when managed properly can respond to patients’ personal disclosure and communication needs and preferences.