Der Elfmeterschuss steht stellvertretend für eine ganze Kategorie sozialer Interaktionen - den Nullsummenspielen. Diese sind insofern von besonderem Interesse, als sich hier Akteure mit exakt gegenläufigen Interessen gegenüber stehen, die weder kommunizieren wollen noch können, dennoch interagieren und dabei eine stabile und vorhersagbare Form von sozialer Ordnung entstehen lassen. Und dies obschon beide Akteure gerade kein Interesse an der Entstehung oder Aufrechterhaltung einer solchen Ordnung haben. Die Fragestellung des Artikels: Verhalten sich Bundesligaspieler (Schützen und Torhüter) beim Elfmeterschuss gemäß den Vorhersagen der Spieltheorie? Die Analyse wird folgendermaßen gegliedert. Im nächsten Abschnitt werden erst die fußballerischen Grundlagen des Problems gelegt. Dann wird das Entscheidungsproblem spieltheoretisch analysiert und daraus ein entsprechendes LÄosungskonzept in Hypothesenform deduziert. Darauf folgt eine Darstellung des Stands der Forschung. Die empirische Überprüfung der Hypothesen mittels eines Datensatzes aus der ersten Bundesliga erfolgt in Abschnitt 4. Im letzen Abschnitt werden die Ergebnisse diskutiert und dabei insbesondere die Fragen in den Vordergrund gerückt, welche theoretischen Implikationen sich aus der Analyse für den RC-Ansatz im allgemeinen und die Spieltheorie im speziellen ergeben und was daraus aus methodischer Sicht zur Überprüfung von spieltheoretischen Hypothesen geschlossen werden kann.

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O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito do estresse, provocada pela presença de espectadores participativos, no controle motor O estresse foi avaliado através de medidas fisiológicas (frequência cardíaca e cortisol salivar). Em cada teste a tela do computador apresentava de início um pequeno círculo central (diâmetro de 0,4 cm), um segundo círculo do mesmo tamanho, situado cerca de 6,3 cm verticalmente abaixo do circulo central e um terceiro círculo, na parte superior da tela, cerca de 4,1cm verticalmente acima do círculo central. Os três círculos representam, respectivamente, a bola, o cobrador do pênalti e o goleiro A tarefa do voluntário era inclinar uma alavanca no exato momento do contato, e se possível na direção oposta à movimentação do goleiro. Na situação com estresse, o índice de erro ficou por volta de 25% Tanto a frequência cardíaca quanto o cortisol salivar apresentaram aumento estatisticamente significativo na presença de torcida. O estresse parece exercer uma influência negativa na tomada de decisão na execução de um movimento / The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of stress, caused by the presence of participative audience ,in the motor control. Stress was assessed by physiological measurements (heart rate and salivary cortisol). In each test the computer screen showed only a relatively small central circle (diameter 0.4 cm), a second circle the same size, located about 6.3 cm vertically below the central circle and a third circle on top the screen, about 4.1 cm vertically above the center circle. The three circles represent, respectively, the \"ball\", the \"kicker\" of the penalty and the \"keeper\". The task of the volunteer was tilting lever at the precise moment of contact, and if possible in the opposite direction to the movement of the goalkeeper. In the situation with stress, the error rate was around 25%.. Both the heart rate as salivary cortisol showed a statistically significant increase in the presence of spectators. The stress seems to exert a negative influence on decision making in the execution of a movement.

This paper studies if the Minimax theorem holds for the behaviour of trained and untrained actors in the field. This is explored with data from 1043 football penalty kicks from professionals of the German Bundesliga and for 268 penalty kicks from untrained players. Minimax makes good predictions about the collective patterns emerging from the behaviour of experienced actors, as well as about their individual strategic actions. However, this is not true for untrained actors. In the next step it is explored if, the professional players learned their behaviour, or if they were selected into their roles because they had the required abilities. The data suggests that the professionals were selected by the competitive conditions of professional sports.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito do estresse, provocada pela presença de espectadores participativos, no controle motor O estresse foi avaliado através de medidas fisiológicas (frequência cardíaca e cortisol salivar). Em cada teste a tela do computador apresentava de início um pequeno círculo central (diâmetro de 0,4 cm), um segundo círculo do mesmo tamanho, situado cerca de 6,3 cm verticalmente abaixo do circulo central e um terceiro círculo, na parte superior da tela, cerca de 4,1cm verticalmente acima do círculo central. Os três círculos representam, respectivamente, a bola, o cobrador do pênalti e o goleiro A tarefa do voluntário era inclinar uma alavanca no exato momento do contato, e se possível na direção oposta à movimentação do goleiro. Na situação com estresse, o índice de erro ficou por volta de 25% Tanto a frequência cardíaca quanto o cortisol salivar apresentaram aumento estatisticamente significativo na presença de torcida. O estresse parece exercer uma influência negativa na tomada de decisão na execução de um movimento / The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of stress, caused by the presence of participative audience ,in the motor control. Stress was assessed by physiological measurements (heart rate and salivary cortisol). In each test the computer screen showed only a relatively small central circle (diameter 0.4 cm), a second circle the same size, located about 6.3 cm vertically below the central circle and a third circle on top the screen, about 4.1 cm vertically above the center circle. The three circles represent, respectively, the \"ball\", the \"kicker\" of the penalty and the \"keeper\". The task of the volunteer was tilting lever at the precise moment of contact, and if possible in the opposite direction to the movement of the goalkeeper. In the situation with stress, the error rate was around 25%.. Both the heart rate as salivary cortisol showed a statistically significant increase in the presence of spectators. The stress seems to exert a negative influence on decision making in the execution of a movement.

Der Elfmeterschuss steht stellvertretend für eine ganze Kategorie sozialer Interaktionen - den Nullsummenspielen. Diese sind insofern von besonderem Interesse, als sich hier Akteure mit exakt gegenläufigen Interessen gegenüber stehen, die weder kommunizieren wollen noch können, dennoch interagieren und dabei eine stabile und vorhersagbare Form von sozialer Ordnung entstehen lassen. Und dies obschon beide Akteure gerade kein Interesse an der Entstehung oder Aufrechterhaltung einer solchen Ordnung haben. Die Fragestellung des Artikels: Verhalten sich Bundesligaspieler (Schützen und Torhüter) beim Elfmeterschuss gemäß den Vorhersagen der Spieltheorie? Die Analyse wird folgendermaßen gegliedert. Im nächsten Abschnitt werden erst die fußballerischen Grundlagen des Problems gelegt. Dann wird das Entscheidungsproblem spieltheoretisch analysiert und daraus ein entsprechendes LÄosungskonzept in Hypothesenform deduziert. Darauf folgt eine Darstellung des Stands der Forschung. Die empirische Überprüfung der Hypothesen mittels eines Datensatzes aus der ersten Bundesliga erfolgt in Abschnitt 4. Im letzen Abschnitt werden die Ergebnisse diskutiert und dabei insbesondere die Fragen in den Vordergrund gerückt, welche theoretischen Implikationen sich aus der Analyse für den RC-Ansatz im allgemeinen und die Spieltheorie im speziellen ergeben und was daraus aus methodischer Sicht zur Überprüfung von spieltheoretischen Hypothesen geschlossen werden kann.

Title: An analysis of the ofensive and defensive activities in set plays Objectives: The main objective of this work is to analyze the implementation of set-plays in the offensive phase of the game matches teams selected for the Champions League 2009/2010. Identification of the key moments leading to successful or unsuccessful completion. Description and graphical representation of the set-plays. Methods: In our work we used as the primary method of obtaining data on the phenomenon of mediated reference, registered observations. It is the indirect observation of DVDs with each team, where we watched our investigation established criteria. The research section has been used both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Quantitative analysis, we obtained data on the frequency of observed phenomena, qualitative analysis shows the critical points and the current developments in implementation of set-plays . Models based on the graphical representation we then facilitate the application of this knowledge in the training practical. Results: The results reveal the ways plays for set-plays were used in the Champions League 2009/2010 in the offensive phase of game and the negotiations in the process of defense. They point to developments and changes occurring with different frequency factors. Keywords:...

This paper studies if the Minimax theorem holds for the behaviour of trained and untrained actors in the field. This is explored with data from 1043 football penalty kicks from professionals of the German Bundesliga and for 268 penalty kicks from untrained players. Minimax makes good predictions about the collective patterns emerging from the behaviour of experienced actors, as well as about their individual strategic actions. However, this is not true for untrained actors. In the next step it is explored if, the professional players learned their behaviour, or if they were selected into their roles because they had the required abilities. The data suggests that the professionals were selected by the competitive conditions of professional sports.