For many years, it has been understood that protein phosphorylation-dephosphorylation constitutes one of the most ubiquitous mechanisms for controlling the functional properties of proteins. Although originally believed to be a eukaryotic phenomenon, protein phosphorylation is now known to occur in all three domains of life <i>Eukarya, Bacteria,</i> and Archaea</i>. Very little is known, however, concerning the origins and evolution of protein phosphorylation-dephosphorylation. Knowledge of the structure and properties of the protein kinases resident in the members of the <i>Archaea</i> represents a key piece of this puzzle. The extreme acidothermophilic archaeon, <i>Sulfolobus solfataricus</i>, exhibits a membrane-associated protein kinase activity. Solubilization of the kinase activity requires the presence of detergent such as Triton X-100 or octyl glucoside, indicating its activity reside in an integral membrane protein. This protein kinase utilizes purine nucleotides as phosphoryl donors <i>in vitro</i> with a requirement for a divalent metal ion cofactor, favoring Mn⁺². A preference for NTPs over NDPs and for adenyl nucleotides over the analogous guanyl nucleotides was observed. The enzyme appears to be a glycoprotein that displays catalytic activity on SDS-PAGE corresponding to a molecular mass of ≈67 kDa, as well as an apparent molecular mass of –125 kDa on a gel filtration column. Challenged with several exogenous substrates revealed the protein kinase to be relatively selective. Only casein, reduced carboxyamidomethylated and maleylated lysozyme (RCM lysozyme), histone H4 proved, and a peptide modeled after myosin light chains (KKRAARATSNVFA) were phosphorylated to appreciable levels <i>in vitro</i>. All of the aforementioned substrates were phosphorylated on threonine, while histone H4 was phosphorylated on serine as well. When the phosphoacceptor threonine in the MLC peptide was substituted with serine an appreciable decrease in phosphorylation was noted. The protein kinase underwent autophosphorylation on threonine and was relatively insensitive to several known "eukaryotic" protein kinase inhibitors. Primary sequence motifs based on known conserved subdomains of eukaryotic protein kinases were used to search the genome of <i>S. solfataricus</i> for eukaryotic-like protein kinase sequences. Six hypothetical proteins were identified from <i>S. solfataricus</i> whose primary sequence exhibited noticeable similarities to eukaryotic protein kinases. The hypothetical protein encoded by <i>ORF sso0197</i> contained 7 putative subdomains, <i>ORFs sso0433, sso2291, sso2387</i>, and <i>sso3207</i> contained 8 putative subdomains, and <i>ORF sso3182</i>, contained 9 putative subdomains of the 12 characteristically conserved subdomains found within eukaryotic protein kinases. <i>ORF sso2387</i> was cloned and expressed in <i>Escherichia coli</i>. The expressed protein, SsPK2, was solubilized from inclusion bodies using 5 M urea. SsPK2 was able to phosphorylate casein, BSA, RCM lysozyme, and mixed histones <i>in vitro</i>. Phosphoamino acid analysis of casein, BSA, and mixed histones revealed that they were all phosphorylated on serine. SsPK2 underwent autophosphorylation on serine at elevated temperature using both purine nucleotide triphosphates as phosphoryl donors in vitro, but exhibited a noticeable preference for ATP. Autophosphorylate of SsPK2 also occurred at elevated temperature using a variety of divalent metals cofactors in order of Mn⁺² > Mg⁺² >> Ca²⁺ ≈ Zn⁺². Polycations such as polyLys stimulated the phosphorylation of exogenous substrates while polyanions such as poly(Glu:Tyr) were shown to inhibit the phosphorylation of exogenous substrates. Of the "eukaryotic" protein kinases inhibitors tested, only tamoxifen had any noticeable effect of the catalytic activity of SsPK2 towards itself and exogenous substrates. A truncated form of SsPK2 containing the perceived catalytic domain also exhibited protein kinase activity towards itself and exogenous substrates. The observed protein kinase activity for SsPK2trunk was similar to that observed for SsPK2. Proteins from the membrane fraction of <i>S. solfataricus</i> subject to phosphorylation <i>in vitro</i> on serine or threonine residues were identified using MALDI-MS / peptide fingerprinting techniques. Nine phosphoproteins were assigned a tentative identification using the ProFound protein search engine from Rockefeller University. The identity of two of nine phosphoproteins, a translational endoplasmic reticulum ATPase and an ≈ 42 kDa hypothetical protein, were determined with a relatively high degree of confidence. Collectively the results suggested MALDI-MS peptide mapping coupled with [³²P] labeling <i>in vivo</i> will have a tremendous potential for mapping out a major portion of the phosphoproteome of <i>S. solfataricus</i>. / Ph. D.

La liaison de l'insuline à son récepteur de surface entraîne une autophosphorylation rapide de la sous-unité β du récepteur de l'insuline (RI), l'initiation de cascades de signalisation et l'internalisation rapide de complexes actifs dans l'appareil endosomal. L'autophosphorylation s'effectue sur trois tyrosines situées dans la boucle d'activation (Yl 146, Y1150, Y1151), deux tyrosines situées dans le domaine C-terminal (Y1316, Y1322) et d'une autre dans le domaine juxta-membranaire (Y960). Ces sites de phosphorylation ont été précédemment identifiés par des essais d'autophosphorylation effectués in vitro sur des fractions membranaires solubilisées. Dans le but d'identifier les sites tyrosines phosphorylés du RI internalisé in vivo, nous avons préparé des fractions Golgi/Endosomes (G/E) à partir de foie de rat suivant l'injection d'une dose d'insuline. Le RI a été immunoprécipité et analysé par spectrométrie de masse. Plusieurs sites de phosphorylation ont été identifiés et seules les formes mono phosphorylé Y1146 et Y1150 de la boucle d'activation ont été observées. Nous avons également identifié de façon non ambiguë plusieurs protéines associés au RI internalisé dont notamment Grb7 (growth factor receptor-bound protein 7), Grbl4 et ATIC (5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase/IMP cyclohydrolase). Nous avons confirmé, par des immunoprécipitations croisées dans les fractions G/E, l'association entre le RI et ATIC, une protéine impliquée dans les deux dernières étapes de la voie de biosynthèse de novo des purines. Les résultats obtenus suggèrent la présence d'un nouveau mécanisme par lequel ATIC, une protéine relativement abondante dans le cytosol et ayant pour substrat naturel AICAR, un insulino-mimétique, pourrait être un régulateur important de la réponse insulinique in vivo.

L'incidence de maladies neurodegeneratives et systémiques liées au vieillissement, tels la maladie d'Alzheimer (MA) et le diabète, augmente rapidement. Plusieurs études rapportent que les patients souffrant de diabète ont entre 50 et 75 % plus de risque de développer la MA que les gens sains du même âge. La protéine tau hyperphosphorylée est une des composantes majeures des enchevêtrements neurofibrillaires, une composante neuropathologique classique de la MA. L'étude présente examine les modifications de tau dans deux modèles de souris transgéniques développant un diabète de type 2. La phosphorylation de tau est augmentée au niveau de l'hippocampe de ces souris. Le diabète de type 2 provoque aussi la dérégulation de quelques kinases et phosphatases de tau. Cette dérégulation serait résultante de la résistance à l'insuline et l'hypothermie. Le diabète de type 2 provoquerait donc l'accélération de la cascade menant à développer la maladie d'Alzheimer.

HPr fait partie du système de transport phosphoénolpyruvate: sucre phosphotransferase (PTS). HPr peut être phosphorylée sur Hisis, par l'enzyme I (El) du PTS, et sur Sér46, par la HPr(Ser) kinase/phosphorylase (HprK/P). Finalement, HPr peut être phosphorylée sur les deux résidus, ce qui génère HPr(Ser-P)(His~P). L'objectif principal de l'étude présentée dans cette thèse était de déterminer par quelle(s) voie(s) HPr(Ser-P)(His~P) est synthétisée chez les streptocoques. Théoriquement, HPr(Ser-P)(His~P) peut être synthétisée via la phosphorylation de HPr(Ser-P) par El et/ou de HPr(His-P) par HprK/P. Nous avons étudié la cinétique de ces voies de synthèse chez Streptococcus salivarius. Les résultats de l'étude avec El ont montré que (i) la kcat/Km pour HPr(Ser-P) était ~5 OOOx plus faible que pour HPr à pH 7,9 et 37°C, (ii) aucun intermédiaire glycolytique ne stimulait la synthèse de HPr(Ser-P)(His~P), (iii) la synthèse de HPr(Ser-P)(His~P) était ~8x plus efficace à pH acide, des conditions retrouvées dans le cytoplasme des streptocoques en croissance, et (iv) la synthèse du HPr(Ser-P)(His~P) de Bacillus subtilis par El de cet organisme était aussi stimulée à pH acide. Les résultats suggèrent que la synthèse de HPr(Ser-P)(His~P) chez les streptocoques résulterait des concentrations élevées en HPr(Ser-P) et de la stimulation de la réaction à pH acide. L'absence de HPr(Ser-P)(His~P) chez B. subtilis cultivée en présence de glucose s'expliquerait en partie par le fait que cette bactérie maintient son pH intracellulaire constamment au-dessus de la neutralité. Les résultats de l'étude avec HprK/P ont montré que les kQJKm pour les HPr(H15D) et HPr(H15E) étaient ~13x plus faibles que pour HPr à pH 7,4 et 37°C. Dans des conditions où HPr(His~P) était stable (pH 8,6 et 15°C), les kcJKm pour HPr(H15D) et HPr(His~P) Ill étaient respectivement neuf et 26 fois plus faibles que pour HPr. Finalement, la phosphorylation de HPr(H15D) n'était que marginalement stimulée à pH acide et le FBP ne stimulait pas la synthèse de HPr(Ser-P)(His~P). Les résultats suggèrent que (i) l'inefficacité de la phosphorylation de HPr(His~P) résulterait de la présence de la charge négative en position 15 et d'autres éléments structuraux et (ii) la contribution de HprK/P à la synthèse de HPr(Ser-P)(His~P) chez les streptocoques serait marginale.

Synaptophysin (Syp) is a major integral synaptic vesicle (SV) protein; there are 31 copies of Syp per vesicle, which totals up to 10% of the total SV protein content. Despite being the major SV protein, little is known about the interaction partners of Syp and as a result there has been no clear role attributed to it. One key feature of Syp is that its cytoplasmic C-terminus contains 10 pentapeptide repeats, nine of which are initiated by a tyrosine residue. Syp is the major tyrosine phospho-protein on SVs. The kinase thought to phosphorylate Syp in vivo is the ubiquitously expressed non-receptor kinase C-Src. There are two splice variants of C-Src, N1- and N2-Src, which are only expressed in neuronal tissues. Although the 3 Srcs are structurally similar, they differ by a small insert of amino acids into their SH3 domains (the N-Src loop). Examination of the amino acid sequence of the cytosolic C-terminus of Syp revealed a putative type one SH3 domain interaction motif. A screen using SH3 domains of synaptic proteins as bait in GST-pull downs from nerve terminal lysate allowed an inventory of potential interaction partners of Syp to be created. Reciprocal experiments using the C-terminal of Syp as bait confirmed many of these interactions. Single point mutations of the SH3 interaction motif on Syp highlighted that syndapin and C-Src bound to Syp via this motif. These binding mutants were inserted in Syp superecliptic synaptophluorin (SypHy) to determine the functional consequences of these interactions. These mutants did not affect the trafficking of Syp when expressed in cortical neurons derived from Syp knockout mice. However, the SH3 interaction motif was fundamental for the retrieval of VAMP (vesicle associated membrane protein) when expressed in Syp knockout cultures. Importantly, this role is not mediated through a direct interaction with VAMP with the SH3 interaction motif implicating either syndapin, C-Src or both in Syp-dependent VAMP retrieval. The 3 different Srcs had different methods of interaction with Syp, and in vitro protein kinase assays the ability of the three Src splice variants to phosphorylate Syp was assessed. Key differences in both speed and efficiency of Syp phosphorylation was observed for the different Src splice variants. Mutagenesis of either all 9 tyrosine residues, only previously identified sites resulted in changes in Syp interactions in GST-pull down assays from nerve terminal lysates. To investigate the role of Syp phosphorylation in the SV lifecycle, the tyrosine pentapeptide repeats were truncated from the C-terminal of Syp in both a mCerulean tagged Syp and SypHy. The experiments showed that these potential tyrosine phosphorylation sites were not involved in the trafficking of Syp but key in the retrieval of VAMP from the plasma membrane during the SV lifecycle. I have indentified an SH3 interaction motif on the C-terminal of Syp that is critical in forming a complex of proteins that are responsible for the retrieval of VAMP during the SV lifecycle. Further experiments have shown that this key interaction is potentially phosphorylation dependent. My preliminary mass spectrometry analysis has provided a catalogue of proteins that can potentially interact with Syp, identifying proteins that may bind to either the Syp C-terminus SH3 interaction motif or to other regions in a phosphorylation dependent manner. This has provided a list of potential candidate proteins for the VAMP retrieval complex.

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) is a critical genome-maintenance system. It ensures genome stability by correcting mismatches generated during DNA replication, suppressing homologous recombination, and inducing apoptosis in response to severe DNA damage. As a result, defects in MMR lead to genome-wide mutations and susceptibility to both hereditary and sporadic cancer syndromes. The hallmark of cancer cells defective in MMR is their ability to display frequent instability in simple repetitive DNA sequences, a phenomenon called microsatellite instability (MSI). However, only ~70% of the MSI-positive tumors have identifiable MMR gene mutations, indicating that additional factor(s) are responsible for the MSI phenotype in the remaining 30% MSI-tumors. We demonstrate here that phosphorylation of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), an MMR component required for the initiation and resynthesis steps of the repair reactions, blocks in vitro MMR. We found that nuclear extracts derived from colorectal cell lines containing high levels of phosphorylated PCNA are not only defective in MMR, but also inhibitory to MMR activity in HeLa extracts. To determine if PCNA phosphorylation inhibits MMR, several PCNA isoforms that mimic phosphorylated or non-phosphorylated PCNA were examined for their effects on MMR activity. We show that all phosphorylated PCNA mimics block MMR at the initiation step but MMR was not affected by the non-phosphorylated mimetic PCNA. In vitro gap-filling experiments reveal that the phosphorylated PCNA induces a mutational frequency several fold higher than non-phosphorylated PCNA. Since PCNA has been shown to interact with MMR initiation factors MutSα and MutLα, we examined the interactions of phosphorylated PCNA with these two initiation factors. Interestingly, PCNA phosphorylation reduces the PCNA-MutSα interaction, but not the PCNA-MutLα interaction. Since PCNA is proposed to transfer MutSα to the mismatch site, the simplest explanation of the result is that PCNA phosphorylation inhibits MMR by blocking MutSα-mismatch binding activity. Taken together, our results reveal that PCNA phosphorylation induces genetic instability by inhibiting MMR at the initiation step and by promoting DNA polymerase-catalyzed mis-incorporations. This study provides a novel mechanism by which posttranslational modifications inhibit MMR, leading to genome instability and tumorigenesis. A second part of the study is to determine MMR function of several MutLα mutants associated with relapse leukemia patients. One of the mutants contains a phenylalanine99 to leucine substitution in the MLH1 subunit of MutLα. We show that this mutation inhibits MMR by blocking both the ATPase activity and the endonuclease activity associated with MutLα, supporting the importance of the MutLα ATPase and the endonuclease activities in MMR.

Tip growth, the mechanism by which hyphae, pollen tubes, root hairs, and algal rhizoids extend, is a complex and dynamic process that is characterised by localised extension at the extreme apex of the cell and morphological polarity. Its complexity suggests that high degree of regulation is needed to ensure that the characteristics of a particular cell type are maintained during growth. Regulation is likely to come about through bidirectional interplay between the cell wall and cytoplasm, although the mechanisms by which such cross-talk might occur are unknown. Results of this thesis present immunocytochemical data that indicate the presence of, and a close association between β4 integrin subunit-like proteins and proteins containing phosphorylated tyrosine residues in the oomycete Achlya bisexualis. When hyphae were plasmolysed, these proteins were present in wall-membrane attachment sites where there was also F-actin. A combination of immunoblots, ELISA, and a coupled enzyme assay suggest that phosphorylation may occur by both autophosphorylation and through the possible action of a tyrosine kinase. Tyrphostins, which are inhibitors of tyrosine kinases, abolished the anti-phosphotyrosine staining, inhibited the kinase activity, slowed tip growth and affected the organisation of the actin cytoskeleton, in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, results show A. bisexualis contains proteins epitopically similar to the rod domain of animal talin. However, these proteins do not co-localise with F-actin, and mainly locate at the sub-apical region in hyphae. For comparative purposes, Saccharomyces cerevisiae was also used to investigate the presence of β4 integrin subunit-like proteins and tyrosine phosphorylation. Immunoblotting showed that S. cereviaise contains a protein, which is found in the microsomal pellet fraction, that cross reacts with anti-β4 integrin subunit antibody. Furthermore, there are a number of proteins containing phosphotyrosine residues. Immunocytochemistry shows that this anti-β4 integrin staining is at the cortical site but anti-phosphotyrosine residues are distributed throughout cells. On the basis of an ELISA and a coupled enzyme assay, it is suggested that a soluble fraction of S. cerevisiae contains tyrosine kinase activity. This activity is strongly inhibited by tyrphostins.

No description available.

No description available.

Palmitoylation is a post-translational modification that has been implicated in the control of multiple proteins, including ion channels. S-Palmitoylation is a lipophilic modification that involves the attachment of palmitate through a thioester linkage to a cysteine residue in a target protein. By increasing the hydrophobicity of the target region, palmitoylation can promote membrane targeting. Here, palmitoylation is shown to play an important role in regulating large conductance calcium- and voltage- activated (BK) potassium channels. The STREX splice variant of the BK channel contains a 58 amino acid insert at the splice site C2 within the intracellular C-terminal RCK1-RCK2 linker that confers increased calcium sensitivity to the channel and determines PKA inhibition of channel activity. The cysteine rich STREX domain was predicted to be palmitoylated, and using an imaging assay STREX was shown to act as a membrane targeting domain through palmitoylation of a di-cysteine motif (C645:C645). A membrane potential assay and electrophysiological analysis demonstrates that palmitoylation at the C645:C646 site in STREX is important in mediating the increased calcium sensitive properties inherent to the STREX channel. Palmitoylation is also shown to modulate PKA channel inhibition. The stability of palmitoylation can often be reliant on the local environment within the protein. Generally in most proteins; lipidated regions, basic domains or transmembrane domains are found adjacent to a palmitoylation site. In STREX, a polybasic domain composed of 11 basic residues just upstream from the C645:C646 palmitoylation site, functions to control the palmitoylation status of the STREX insert. A site directed mutagenesis approach to disrupt the polybasic domain revealed an important role in controlling membrane targeting of the STREX C-terminus, mediating the increased calcium sensitivity inherent to STREX channels and controlling the palmitoylation status of the C645:C646 palmitoylation site using multiple techniques involving electrophysiology, fluorescent imaging and biochemical assays. Further to this, using imaging to examine the membrane association of fluorescently tagged C-terminal proteins, phosphorylation is shown to function as a physiological electrostatic switch to regulate the polybasic region in controlling palmitoylation of the STREX insert. Finally, an additional palmitoylation site that is constitutively expressed in all BK channels was identified to be located in the S0-S1 linker (C53:C54:C56). Mutation of the C53:C54:C56 palmitoylation site in the S0-S1 linker was shown to abolish all palmitoylation in BK channels that did not contain the STREX insert. Palmitoylation allows the S0-S1 linker to associate with the plasma membrane however the mutated de-palmitoylated channels did not affect channel conductance or the calcium/voltage sensitivity of the channel. Palmitoylation of the S0-S1 linker was shown to be a critical determinant of cell surface expression of BK channels, as steady state surface expression levels were reduced by ~55% in the C53:C54:C56 mutant. STREX channels that could not be palmitoylated in the S0-S1 linker also showed decreased surface expression even through STREX insert palmitoylation was unaffected. Palmitoylation is rapidly emerging as an important post-translational mechanism to control ion channel behaviour. This work reveals that palmitoylation of the BK channel can control channel function of the STREX splice variant channel and can regulate cell surface expression in all other channel variants. Palmitoylation appears to be functionally independent at these two distinct sites expressed within the same channel protein.