Faculty of Science; School of Chemistry; PhD Thesis / ortho-Ethoxy-trans-cinnamic acid (OETCA) has been known to form three polymorphs - the α , β and γ polymorphs which crystallize in P1 (Z=2), R3 (Z=18) and C2/c (Z=8), respectively. These polymorphs have long been of interest from polymorphism and solid-state photoreactivity perspectives but have, until now, never been fully characterized. In this thesis the complete structures of these polymorphs and their photodimerization products are presented. In addition, a new polymorph, the α' polymorph [P1 (Z=6)], which is only obtainable from the α polymorph via a reversible solid-state phase transformation at 60 °C, has been discovered and characterised. In all the polymorphs of OETCA, the smallest building component is the hydrogen-bonded carboxylic acid R22(8) dimers. These dimers further aggregate via CH...O interactions to form a ribbon motif in the α , α' and γ polymorph structures. Structural and solid-state reactivity differences in these three polymorphs are therefore due to differences in the arrangement of these ribbons. With few exceptions, solid state [2+2] photodimerization reactions have been found to obey the topochemical principle. Such reactions occur with minimal structural movement in which the contact distance between reacting double bonds is between 3.5 and 4.2 Å. In this respect the solid-state reactivity of both the α and α' polymorphs is especially interesting and unusual, and indicate that significant movement - both molecular and structural - is possible and necessary for reactions to occur in these polymorphs. Both polymorphs yield the centrosymmetric dimer product 2,2' diethoxy-α-truxillic acid. Photodimerization in the layered structure of the α polymorph, where the double bond contact distance is at 4.54 Å beyond reasonable photodimerization distance, is probably initially enabled by crystal defects. While the α' polymorph is structurally very similar to the α polymorph it is instead composed of two reaction sites with double bond contact distances of 3.72 and 4.99 Å, respectively. This polymorph's solid-state reactivity has as a consequence been found to be temperature dependent, with only 66.7% conversion being achieved at 293 K and 100% conversion occurring at 343 K; reaction at 343 K involves both a significant conformation change in a reaction product as well as a heat and reaction driven phase change. In the γ polymorph the closest distance between the double bonds is 5.26 Å, which together with the structural rigidity imposed by its herring bone structure ensures that no photodimerization occurs. The β polymorph is really a solvate containing either benzene or thiophene within channels in the structure. The interactions between the solvent and OETCA molecules play an important role in maintaining the symmetry and integrity of the structure. The thiophene and benzene forms of the β polymorph are isomorphous and yield a mirror product (2,2'-diethoxy-β-truxinic acid) upon photodimerization - the molecules involved being related by a 4.0 Å translation along the unit cell c axis.

<p>The ability of photocatalytic nanoparticles (NPs) to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) has inspired research into several new applications and technologies, including water purification, contaminant remediation, and self-cleaning surface coatings. As a result, NPs continue to be incorporated into a wide variety of increasingly complex products. With the increased use of NPs and nano-enabled products and their subsequent disposal, NPs will make their way into the environment. Currently, many unanswered questions remain concerning how changes to the NP surface chemistry that occur in natural waters will impact reactivity. This work seeks to investigate potential influences on photoreactivity – specifically the impact of functionalization, the influence of anions, and interactions with biological objects - so that ROS generation in natural aquatic environments may be better understood.</p><p>To this aim, titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2) and fullerene nanoparticles (FNPs) were studied in terms of their reactive endpoints: ROS generation measured through the use of fluorescent or spectroscopic probe compounds, virus and bacterial inactivation, and contaminant degradation. Physical characterization of NPs included light scattering, electron microscopy and electrophoretic mobility. These systematic investigations into the effect of functionalization, sorption, and aggregation on NP aggregate structure, size, and reactivity improve our understanding of trends that impact nanoparticle reactivity.</p><p>Engineered functionalization of FNPs was shown to impact NP aggregation, ROS generation, and viral affinity. Fullerene cage derivatization can lead to a greater affinity for the aqueous phase, smaller mean aggregate size, and a more open aggregate structure, favoring greater rates of ROS production. At the same time however, fullerene derivatization also decreases the 1O2 quantum yield and may either increase or decrease the affinity for a biological surface. These results suggest that the biological impact of fullerenes will be influenced by changes in the type of surface functionalization and extent of cage derivatization, potentially increasing the ROS generation rate and facilitating closer association with biological targets.</p><p>Investigations into anion sorption onto the surface of TiO2 indicate that reactivity will be strongly influenced by the waters they are introduced into. The type and concentration of anion impacted both aggregate state and reactivity to varying degrees. Specific interactions due to inner sphere ligand exchange with phosphate and carbonate have been shown to stabilize NPs. As a result, waters containing chloride or nitrate may have little impact on inherent reactivity but will reduce NP transport via aggregation, while waters containing even low levels of phosphate and carbonate may decrease “acute” reactivity but stabilize NPs such that their lifetime in the water column is increased.</p><p>Finally, ROS delivery in a multicomponent system was studied under the paradigm of pesticide degradation. The presence of bacteria or chlorpyrifos in solution significantly decreased bulk ROS measurements, with almost no OH detected when both were present. However, the presence of bacteria had no observable impact on the rate of chlorpyrifos degradation, nor chlorpyrifos on bacterial inactivation. These results imply that investigating reactivity in simplified systems may significantly over or underestimate photocatalytic efficiency in realistic environments, depending on the surface affinity of a given target.</p><p>This dissertation demonstrates that the reactivity of a system is largely determined by NP surface chemistry. Altering the NP surface, either intentionally or incidentally, produces significant changes in reactivity and aggregate characteristics. Additionally, the photocatalytic impact of the ROS generated by a NP depends on the characteristics of potential targets as well as on the characteristics of the NP itself. These are complicating factors, and the myriad potential exposure conditions, endpoints, and environmental systems to be considered for even a single NP highlight the need for functional assays that employ environmentally relevant conditions if risk assessments for engineered NPs are to be made in a timely fashion so as not to be outpaced by, or impede, technological advances.</p> / Dissertation

Northern peatlands are a globally important soil carbon (C) store, and aquatic systems draining peatland catchments receive a high loading of dissolved and particulate forms of C from the surrounding terrestrial environment. Once incorporated into the aquatic environment, internal processes occur to modify the C pool. Of these, photo-processing preferentially targets terrestrially derived C and therefore might have a significant effect on the C budget of peatland draining aquatic systems. The overarching aim of this study was to investigate photochemical processing of C in Scottish peatland draining aquatic systems in order to determine the importance of this pathway in aquatic biogeochemical cycles. For initial laboratory experiments, water samples from a peatland headwater stream (Auchencorth Moss, SE Scotland) were collected. Laboratory based irradiation experiments were conducted at a range of temperatures, and different filtration treatments, including unfiltered samples, were employed to understand the fraction of C most susceptible to photo-processing. UV irradiation and temperature had a significant effect on DOC and gas headspace concentrations, with Q10 values of ~1.42 and ~1.65 derived for CO2 and CO photoproduction in unfiltered samples, respectively. However, filtration treatment did not induce significant changes in gaseous C production between light and dark samples, indicating that the experimental conditions favoured breakdown of DOC rather than POC to CO2 and CO. In all light treatments a small but significant increase in CH4 concentration was detected. These data were compared to results from experiments conducted in ambient light and temperature conditions. DOC normalised CO2 photoproduction was an order of magnitude lower than in laboratory conditions, although relative abundances of C species within overall budgets were similar and these experiments demonstrated that ambient exposure is sufficient to generate photo-processing of aquatic peatland C. Overall these data show that peatland C, particularly the < 0.2 μm fraction, is highly photoreactive and that this process is temperature sensitive. Further laboratory irradiation experiments were conducted on filtered water samples collected over a 13-month period from two contrasting aquatic systems. The first was the headwater stream draining Auchencorth Moss peatland with high DOC concentrations. The second was a low DOC reservoir (Loch Katrine, C Scotland) situated in a catchment with a high percentage peat cover. Samples were collected monthly from May 2014 to May 2015 and from the stream system during two rainfall events. Significant variation was seen in the photochemical reactivity of DOC between the two systems, with total irradiation induced change typically two orders of magnitude greater and DOC normalised CO2 production a factor of two higher in the headwater stream samples. This is attributed to longer water residence times in the reservoir rendering a higher proportion of the DOC recalcitrant to photo-processing. Overall the magnitude of photo-induced C losses was significantly positively correlated with DOC concentration in the headwater stream, which varied seasonally with highest concentrations detected in late autumn and winter. Rainfall events were identified as important in replenishing the stream system with photoreactive material, with lignin phenol data indicating mobilisation of fresh DOC from woody vegetation in the upper catchment during a winter rainfall event. Whilst these data clearly demonstrate that peatland catchments generate significant volumes of photoreactive DOC, the degree to which it is processed in the aquatic environment is unclear. Field investigations were undertaken to address this uncertainty. In-situ experiments with unfiltered water samples in light and dark conditions were conducted in two contrasting open water peatland pool systems. At the high DOC site (Red Moss of Balerno, SE Scotland), DOC concentrations in surface light exposed samples decreased by 18% compared to dark controls over 9 days and light treatments were enriched in CO2 and CH4. Photochemical processing was evident in δ13C-DOC and δ13C-DIC signatures of light exposed samples, which were enriched and depleted, respectively, relative to dark controls (+0.23 ‰ and -0.38 ‰) after 9 days of surface exposure. At the low DOC site (Cross Lochs, Forsinard, N Scotland) net production of DOC occurred in both light and dark samples over the experiment duration, in part due to POC breakdown. δ13C-DIC signatures indicated photolysis had occurred in light exposed samples (-1.98 ‰), whilst δ13C-DOC data suggest an absence of photo-processing, as the signatures in both treatments were similar. Accounting for light attenuation through the water column, 46 ± 4.9 and 8.7 ± 0.5 g C-CO2 eq m−2 yr−1 was processed by photochemical and microbial activity in peatland pools within the catchments at the high and low DOC sites, respectively. At both sites, light driven processing was responsible for a considerable percentage (34 and 51%) of gaseous C production when compared to equivalent estimates of microbial C processing and thus should be considered a key driver of peatland pool biogeochemical cycles. It is clear from this study that temperature, seasonal cycles, rainfall events and water residence time provide strong controls on the photoreactivity of aquatic C in Scottish peatland systems. The photo-processing pathway has the potential to alter the C balance of peatland catchments with a high percentage coverage of aquatic systems. Under climate change scenarios where light, temperature and rainfall conditions are expected to change, this process may become increasingly important in aquatic C cycling, particularly if the upward trend in DOC concentrations in northern aquatic systems continues.

La thèse est une étude des propriétés photophysiques et photochimiques de systèmes contenant la molécule sulfonylcalix[4]arène, membre de la famille des thiacalixarènes. Une série d'études dans notre laboratoire a révélé qu'un complexe agrégat tétranucléaire de manganèse(II) avec le ligand para-tert-butylsulfonylcalix[4]arène (thiaSO2) montrait une forte émission rouge sous l'action de lumière bleu. Cette découverte surprenante est la base de cette étude doctorale.Le premier chapitre est une revue de la littérature concernant les thiacalixarènes et leurs complexes métalliques. La synthèse et les modifications de ces molécules seront décrites, ansi que leurs propriétés fondamentales.La deuxième partie se concentre sur les propriétés de luminescence. Afin de proposer une explication mécanistique, la réponse de l'émission provenant du complexe (K)[Mn4(thiaSO2)2F] (2) a été étudiée sous des conditions variables de pression, température, pression d'O2 … L'hypothèse que ces systèmes sont capables de produire l'oxygène singulet sera faite.Le troisième chapitre concerne les photoréactions de systèmes en solution des complexes de manganèse(II). La photo-oxydation des ions Mn2+ en Mn3+ a été étudiée et les divers facteurs contribuants à ce processus seront discutés. Le rôle important de l'oxygène et sa transformation en espèces réactives, l'effet du solvant et du pH du milieu de réaction, et l'importance des matériaux de départ, sont confirmés ; nous proposons un mécanisme réactionnel basé sur ces données et la photoréactivité du composé organique calculée par une méthode théorique.La dernière partie montrera la préparation et la caractérisation d'espèces hybrides organique-inorganique par l'insertion d'agrégats [Mn4(thiaSO2)2F]- dans des matériaux LDH (« Hydroxyde Double Lamellaires »). Ces hybrides sont réalisés par des méthodes de chimie douce. Les études préliminaires sur la structure, la luminescence, et la photoréactivité des produits ont été faites. Finalement, un essai a été fait afin de tester la capacité des matériaux hybrides à agir comme photocatalyseur pour l'oxydation de molécules simples / This thesis is a study of the photophysical and photochemical properties of systems containing the molecule sulfonylcalix[4]arene, a member of the thaicalixarene family. A series of studies in our laboratory revealed that a tetranuclear cluster complex of manganese(II) with the ligand para-tert-butylsulfonylcalix[4]arene (thiaSO2) displayed strong red emission under the action of blue light. This surprising discovery became the basis for this doctoral study.The first chapter is a review of the literature concerning thiacalixarenes and their metal complexes. The syntheses and modifications of these compounds will be described, as well as their fundamental properties.The second part is dedicated to the properties of luminescence. In order to propose a mechanistic explanation, the response of the emission arising from the complex (K)[Mn4(thiaSO2)2F] (2) has been studied under varying conditions of pressure, temperature, O2 partial pressure … The hypothesis that these systems are capable of producing singlet oxygen will be made.The third chapter is concerned with photoreactions of these systems in solution. The photo-oxidation of Mn2+ ions into Mn3+ ions was investigated and the various contributing factors to this process will be discussed. The important role of oxygen and its transformation into reactive species, the effect of the solvent and the pH of the reaction medium, and the importance of the starting material, are all confirmed; we will propose a reaction mechanism based on both these data and the photoreactivity inherent to the organic compound calculated by a theoretical method.The final part will show the preparation and characterisation of organic-inorganic hybrid species by the insertion of [Mn4(thiaSO2)2F]- aggregates into LDH (“Layered Double Hydroxide”) materials. These hybrids were obtained by soft chemistry methods. Preliminary investigations of the structure, the luminescence, and the photoreactivity of these products have been made. Finally, an attempt was carried out to test the capacity of these hybrid materials to act as photocatalysts for the oxidation of simple molecules

Le milieu nuageux est un milieu complexe au sein duquel un grand nombre d’espèces chimiques peuvent être transformées. Dans ce cadre, la caractérisation chimique et la réactivité photochimique de la phase aqueuse des nuages ont été étudiées. La caractérisation chimique de la phase aqueuse des nuages a permis de montrer que les masses d’air échantillonnées au sommet du puy de Dôme sont majoritairement sous trois influences distinctes, à savoir océanique, continentale et anthropique. La distribution des paramètres physicochimiques et des composés inorganiques est dépendante du type de masses d’air échantillonnées. De plus, la quantification des acides carboxyliques et des aldéhydes a permis de mettre en avant la complexité de la matière organique avec la présence d’une multitude de composés encore non identifiés. L’étude de la réactivité photochimique de la phase aqueuse des nuages a également été réalisée, montrant que la capacité photooxydante de la phase aqueuse des nuages ainsi que les vitesses de dégradation de différentes espèces chimiques sont plus importantes pour les masses d’air polluées. Pour la première fois, des vitesses de photoproduction des radicaux hydroxyles ont été évaluées dans la phase aqueuse des nuages, montrant que les ions nitrates et le peroxyde d’hydrogène sont des sources photochimiques majeures des radicaux hydroxyles (représentant jusqu’à 80 % de leur photoproduction totale). / Clouds represent complex media where many species can be transformed. In order to characterize the chemical composition of cloud water and to better understand the processes involved in the transformations of these species, the characterization and the photoreactivity of cloud water were studied. The characterization of cloud water showed that air masses sampled at the puy de Dôme station can be subject to different influences (marine, continental and anthropogenic). The distribution of the physicochemical parameters and of inorganic compounds was different for each kind of air masses. Moreover, the quantification of carboxylic acids and aldehydes showed the complexity of the organic matter contained in cloud water, with the presence of many unknown organic compounds. The photoreactivity of cloud water was also studied, showing that the oxidizing capacity of cloud water and the degradation rate of organic compounds were higher in polluted air masses. For the first time, hydroxyl radical formation rates were determined in cloud water sampled at the puy de Dôme station, showing that nitrate ions and hydrogen peroxide are among the main sources of hydroxyl radicals (contributing up to 80 % of their total photoformation).

La liaison hydrogène est une interaction stabilisante très importante, qui est présente dans de nombreux systèmes moléculaires, des petits clusters d'eau à la molécule d'ADN. L'étude du cas de la liaison hydrogène intramoléculaire (LHI) est d'un intérêt particulier en raison du rôle important de ce type d'interaction dans les processus de transfert d'hydrogène interne, dans la photodynamique et la conformation structurelle. La famille des molécules β-dicarbonyles est un système modèle de LHI unique car il possède relativement peu de degrés de liberté et tous les processus mentionnés précédemment sont clairement présents. L'objectif principal de ce travail est d'étudier le lien entre structure isotopique et électronique des molécules β-dicarbonyles, force de la liaison hydrogène intramoléculaire, sélectivité sur le processus de photoisomérisation et couplage du transfert d'hydrogène avec d'autres mouvements de grande amplitude. Les expériences sont complétées par des calculs de chimie quantique. Quatre molécules de la famille des β-dicétones (acétylacétone doublement deutérée, 3-chloroacétylacétone, hexafluoroacétylacétone et trifluoroacétylacétone) et une β-dialdéhyde (2-chloromalonaldéhyde) sont étudiées dans des environnements inertes à basse température par spectroscopie électronique et vibrationnelle (FT- IR et Raman). Le néon et le para hydrogène ont été utilisés principalement comme matrices hôtes permettant une analyse spectroscopique claire. Les β-dicarbonyles se présentent sous deux formes tautomères: le céto et l'énol, mais ce dernier prédomine en grande partie en phase gazeuse, et par conséquent, dans les échantillons déposés étudiés. Huit différents conformères énoliques peuvent exister, mais celui avec LHI (énol chélaté) est le plus stable. Ces conformères peuvent être divisés en quatre paires dans lesquelles chaque couple partage la même structure squelettique et ne diffère que dans la conformation hydroxyle. Le conformère énolique fermé a toujours été trouvé comme l´espèce la plus stable dans nos expériences. L'influence de l'environnement et de la force de la liaison hydrogène sur des variables spectroscopiques comme la largeur de bande, l'intensité et le déplacement spectral sont discutées. On a également trouvé des preuves expérimentales du processus de conversion de spin nucléaire dans la forme énolique fermée de l'acétylacétone doublement deutérée en matrice de para-hydrogène. Différents conformères énoliques ouverts ont été produits dans chaque système après excitation par laser UV. Les conformères énoliques ouverts présentent des ordres d'énergie différents pour chaque analogue halogéné en raison de l'existence d'interactions non covalentes spécifiques, comme le révèlent les calculs théoriques. Néanmoins, dans tous les cas, les conformères produits sont les conformères les plus stables de leurs paires énoliques. Ceci est expliqué par un processus régit par passage tunnel de l'hydrogène hydroxylique, comme observé expérimentalement dans les isotopologues deutérés. A partir des résultats expérimentaux, nous avons proposé un mécanisme général pour expliquer la photo-isomérisation dans ces systèmes. Par ailleurs, la technique des gouttelettes d'hélium a également été utilisée pour avoir accès à des informations spectroscopiques précieuses (spectres ro-vibrationnels) sur des complexes fortement ou faiblement liés en milieu inerte. Le rôle de l'eau comme espèce donneur ou accepteur de protons dans un complexe peut facilement être modifié par un déséquilibre des forces d'interaction en jeu. Les résultats préliminaires sur le système à liaison hydrogène intermoléculaire propyne-eau dans des gouttelettes d'hélium sont présentés. / The hydrogen bond interaction is an important stabilizing interaction present in many kinds of molecular systems, from small water clusters to the big DNA molecule. The study of the specific case of the intramolecular hydrogen bond (IHB) is of special interest because of the important role of this kind of interaction in internal hydrogen transfer processes, photodynamic behavior and structural conformation. The β-dicarbonyl family of molecules is a unique model system with relatively small amount of degrees of freedom and where all the processes just mentioned are clearly present. The main aim of this work is to study the link between the isotopic and electronic structure of β-dicarbonyl molecules (model IHB system) with the strength of intramolecular hydrogen bond, selectivity on the photoisomerization process and coupling of hydrogen transfer with other large amplitude motions. Experiments are supported with quantum chemical calculations. Four molecules from the β-diketone family (double deuterated acetylacetone, 3-chloroacetylacetone, hexafluoroacetylacetone and trifluoroacetylacetone) and one from the β-dialdehyde (2-chloromalonaldehyde) are studied in low temperature inert environments by means of electronic and vibrational spectroscopy (FT-IR and Raman). Neon and para-hydrogen were mainly used as host matrices allowing clear spectroscopic analysis. The β-dicarbonyl molecules can be present in two tautomeric forms: keto and enol, but the latter largely predominates in the gas phase, and as a consequence, in the deposited isolated samples. Eight different enol conformers can exist, but the one with intramolecular hydrogen bond (chelated enol) is the most stable. The enol conformers can be divided in four pairs in which each couple shares the same skeletal structure and differs only in the hydroxyl conformation.In the deposited sample of all the molecules under study, the closed enolic conformer was found as the most stable species. The influence of the environment and the hydrogen bond strength on spectroscopic variables like bandwidth, intensity and frequency position are discussed. Experimental evidence of Nuclear Spin Conversion process in para-hydrogen matrix of the closed enol form of double deuterated acetylacetone was also found. Different open enol conformers were produced in each system after UV laser excitation. The open enol conformers show different energy ordering for each halogenated analog because of the existence of specific non covalent interactions, as revealed by theoretical calculations. Nevertheless, in all cases, the produced conformers are the most stable conformers of their enolic pairs. This is explained by a tunneling driven process in the hydroxyl hydrogen, as observed experimentally in deuterated isotopologues. From the experimental results we proposed a general mechanism to explain the photoisomerization in these systems. On the other hand, helium droplets technique was also used to allow recording valuable spectroscopic information (ro-vibrational spectrum) about strong and weak complexes in inert media. The role of water as donor or acceptor proton species in a complex can easily change by an imbalance of the interaction forces at play. Preliminary results about the intermolecular hydrogen bonded system propyne-water in helium droplets are presented.

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