Ce projet de thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre du FUI « MicroConnect », porté par la société Axon’Cable, dont l’objectif principal, est la conception et le développement d’un procédé de mise en forme automatisé, permettant d’élaborer un nouveau type de connecteurs twist-pin novateurs et très performants. Ces connecteurs, robustes, répondent aux exigences d’environnements sévères et trouvent leurs applications dans de nombreux domaines tels que l'électronique aéronautique, les équipements avioniques, les systèmes militaires... L’un des éléments essentiels des connecteurs est le contact, qui permet de faire transiter le courant électrique d’un système à un autre. Chaque connecteur peut compter des dizaines, voire des centaines de contacts.De par l’enchaînement des procédés utilisés pour concevoir ces contacts, les propriétés électriques et mécaniques initiales peuvent être modifiées. L’utilisation de la simulation numérique s’avère donc indispensable pour maitriser l’influence de ces procédés sur le produit final. La démarche adoptée dans ce travail a consisté à modéliser numériquement les différentes étapes de fabrication des contacts (pliage, soudage laser et sertissage) avec le logiciel Abaqus afin de déterminer les contraintes résiduelles issues de ces différents procédés de mise en forme. Les modèles sont validés en les confrontant à des investigations expérimentales réalisées. Pour finir, une optimisation du sertissage a été réalisée pour mettre en évidence les configurations géométriques des outillages permettant au produit développé de répondre aux essais d’arrachement prévus par les normes de validation imposées. / This PhD thesis is part of the FUI "MicroConnect" project, carried out by Axon'Cable Group, whose main objective is the design and development of an automated forming process to manufacture a new type of innovative and high-performance twist-pin connectors. These connectors are used in many fields such as aeronautical electronics, avionics, military systems because of their strength and their hability to be used in very demanding environments... An essential element of the connectors is the contact, as it makes the transfer of the electric current from a system to another. Each connector can have tens or even hundreds.Due to the sequence of the processes used to produce these contacts, their initial properties can be modified. The use of numerical simulation is therefore essential to master the influence of these processes on the final product. The approach adopted in this work consisted in modelling the different steps of the contact fabrication (bending, laser welding and crimping) on the Abaqus software in order to determine the residual stresses resulting from these operations. These models are validated by comparing them with experimental investigations carried out. Finally, an optimization of the crimping is done to highlight the geometrical configurations of the tools allowing the developed product to respond to the tearing tests provided by the validation standards.

As ligas à base de níquel de alta resistência são utilizadas em uma infinidade de sistemas avançados, onde baixo peso e sistemas de transmissão mecânica de alta densidade de energia são necessários. Componentes, tais como, engrenagens, rolamentos e eixos poderiam ser consideravelmente menor e mais durável se uma grande melhoria em propriedades mecânicas de ligas à base de níquel for alcançada. Um refinamento significativo no tamanho de grão (incluindo nível nano) é um método promissor para a obtenção de melhorias fundamentais nas propriedades mecânicas. O tamanho de grão é conhecido por ter um efeito significativo sobre o comportamento mecânico dos materiais. Um dos métodos mais favoráveis de alcançar refinamento de grão extremo é submetendo os materiais à deformação plástica intensa. As principais variáveis microestruturais nas superligas são a quantidade de precipitados e sua morfologia, o tamanho e a forma do grão e a distribuição de carbonetos (Cr7C3 e Cr23C6) que poderão reduzir propriedades mecânicas da liga. Neste trabalho é apresentada análise por microscopia óptica e eletrônica de transmissão e também os dados de dureza após deformação plástica intensa (tensão de cisalhamento puro) e alguns tratamentos térmicos. / High strength nickel based alloys are used in a multitude of advanced systems where lightweight, high power density mechanical power transmission systems are required. Components such as gears, bearings and shafts could be made significantly smaller and more durable if a major improvement in nickel based alloy mechanical properties could be achieved. A significant refinement in grain size (includes nano level) is thought to be a promising method for achieving fundamental improvements in mechanical properties. Grain size is known to have a significant effect on the mechanical behavior of materials. One of the most favorable methods of achieving extreme grain refinement is by subjecting the materials to severe plastic deformation. The principal microstructural variations in superalloys are the precipitation amount and morphology, grain size and the distribution of carbide precipitation (Cr7C3 and Cr23C6) that could reduce the mechanical properties of the alloys. This work shows optical and transmission electron microscopy analysis and also hardness data after severe plastic deformation (pure shear stress) and some thermal treatments.

As ligas à base de níquel de alta resistência são utilizadas em uma infinidade de sistemas avançados, onde baixo peso e sistemas de transmissão mecânica de alta densidade de energia são necessários. Componentes, tais como, engrenagens, rolamentos e eixos poderiam ser consideravelmente menor e mais durável se uma grande melhoria em propriedades mecânicas de ligas à base de níquel for alcançada. Um refinamento significativo no tamanho de grão (incluindo nível nano) é um método promissor para a obtenção de melhorias fundamentais nas propriedades mecânicas. O tamanho de grão é conhecido por ter um efeito significativo sobre o comportamento mecânico dos materiais. Um dos métodos mais favoráveis de alcançar refinamento de grão extremo é submetendo os materiais à deformação plástica intensa. As principais variáveis microestruturais nas superligas são a quantidade de precipitados e sua morfologia, o tamanho e a forma do grão e a distribuição de carbonetos (Cr7C3 e Cr23C6) que poderão reduzir propriedades mecânicas da liga. Neste trabalho é apresentada análise por microscopia óptica e eletrônica de transmissão e também os dados de dureza após deformação plástica intensa (tensão de cisalhamento puro) e alguns tratamentos térmicos. / High strength nickel based alloys are used in a multitude of advanced systems where lightweight, high power density mechanical power transmission systems are required. Components such as gears, bearings and shafts could be made significantly smaller and more durable if a major improvement in nickel based alloy mechanical properties could be achieved. A significant refinement in grain size (includes nano level) is thought to be a promising method for achieving fundamental improvements in mechanical properties. Grain size is known to have a significant effect on the mechanical behavior of materials. One of the most favorable methods of achieving extreme grain refinement is by subjecting the materials to severe plastic deformation. The principal microstructural variations in superalloys are the precipitation amount and morphology, grain size and the distribution of carbide precipitation (Cr7C3 and Cr23C6) that could reduce the mechanical properties of the alloys. This work shows optical and transmission electron microscopy analysis and also hardness data after severe plastic deformation (pure shear stress) and some thermal treatments.

Orientador: Eduardo Norberto Codaro / Resumo: Este trabalho teve como objetivo de realizar a investigar da influência da deformação plástica a frio no processo corrosivo de tubulação de oleoduto em contato com agua do mar. As tubulações de transporte de petróleo são submetidas a ambientes altamente corrosivos no fundo do mar, sendo que concomitantemente estas sofrem deformações plásticas durante sua utilização, fato este que altera suas propriedades mecânicas, o que faz que tal fenômeno seja passível de um estudo mais detalhado a respeito. Para realizar este estudo se retirou amostras de um tubo constituído pelo aço X65 e de acordo com a norma API 5L, fabricado para a indústria petrolífera para ser usado no transporte do óleo, tais amostras foram submetidas a um processo de deformação a frio até atingir a região plástica nos percentuais de 0,5%; 1,0%; 1,5%; 2,0% e 2,5%, acima do limite de escoamento em um equipamento para ensaio de tração. Para avaliar o processo corrosivo foi realizado ensaios eletroquímicos laboratoriais com o intuito de caracterizar qualitativamente e quantitativamente o processo corrosivo deste aço em solução de agua do mar sintética normatizada além de estudar a influência do oxigênio no processo de corrosão neste aço. Foi utilizado as técnicas eletroquímicas de Potencial em circuito aberto, polarização por Tafel e Espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, verificando que a deformação plástica não apresentou variação significativa proveniente da deformação plástica, além do aumento continuo da cor... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The objective of this work was to investigate the influence of cold plastic deformation on the corrosive process of pipeline pipeline in contact with sea water. The petroleum transport pipelines are subjected to highly corrosive environments in the seabed, and at the same time they undergo plastic deformations during their use, fact that changes their mechanical properties, which makes this phenomenon demands for a more detailed study about that. In order to carry out this study, samples were taken from a tube made of X65 steel and according to API 5L, manufactured for the petroleum industry to be used for transporting the oil, these samples were subjected to a cold deformation process until reaching the plastic regions in the percentages of 0.5%; 1.0%; 1.5%; 2.0% and 2.5%, above the flow limit in a tensile test equipment. In order to evaluate the corrosive process, it was carried out laboratory electrochemical tests with the purpose of characterizing qualitatively and quantitatively the corrosive process of this steel in standardized synthetic water, in addition to studying the influence of oxygen in the corrosion process in this steel. It was used the electrochemical techniques of Potential in open circuit, polarization by Tafel and Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, verifying that the plastic deformation did not present significant variation from the plastic deformation, besides the continuous increase of the current during the anodic sweep evidences the absence of pa... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

L'analyse isométrique s'est révélée être un outil très prometteur pour la conception et l'analyse. Une tâche difficile consiste toujours à faire passer l'IGA de concept à un outil de conception pratique pour l'industrie et ce travail contribue à cet effort. Ce travail porte sur l'implémentation de l'IGA dans le solveur explicite Altair Radioss afin de répondre aux applications de simulation de crash et d'emboutissage. Pour cela, les ingrédients nécessaires à une intégration native de l'IGA dans un code éléments finis traditionnel ont été identifiés et adaptés à l'architecture de code existante. Un élément solide B-Spline et NURBS a été développé dans Altair Radioss. Les estimations heuristiques des pas de temps élémentaires ou nodaux sont explorées pour améliorer l'efficacité des simulations et garantir leur stabilité. Une interface de contact existante a été étendue afin de fonctionner de manière transparente avec les éléments finis NURBS et de Lagrange. Un raffinement local est souvent nécessaire pour la bonne représentation de champs non linéaires tels que les champs de déformations plastiques. Une analyse est faite en termes de compatibilité pour l'analyse et de mise en oeuvre pour plusieurs bases de fonctions Spline telles que les Hierarchical B-Splines, les Truncated Hierarchical B-Splines, les T-Splines et les Locally Refined B-Splines (LR B-Splines). Les LR B-Splines sont implémentés. Un schéma de raffinement est proposé et définit un sous-ensemble de raffinements adapté à leur utilisation au sein de Radioss. Le processus de raffinement d’un maillage initialement grossier et régulier est développé au sein du solveur. Il permet à l’utilisateur d’établir du raffinement local par un ensemble d’instructions à fournir dans le jeu de donnée de la simulation. La solution globale est validée sur des cas tests industriels, pour des cas de validation classiquement utilisés pour les codes industriels comme l'emboutissage et les tests de chute. / IsoGeometric Analysis has shown to be a very promising tool for an integrated design and analysis process. A challenging task is still to move IGA from a proof of concept to a convenient design tool for industry and this work contributes to this endeavor. This work deals with the implementation of the IGA into Altair Radioss explicit finite element solver in order to address crash and stamping simulation applications. To this end, the necessary ingredients to a smooth integration of IGA in a traditional finite element code have been identified and adapted to the existing code architecture. A solid B-Spline element has been developed in Altair Radioss. The estimations of heuristic element and nodal stable time increment are explored to improve the accuracy of simulations and guarantee their stability. An existing contact interface has been extended in order to work seamlessly with both NURBS and Lagrange finite elements. As local refinement is needed for solution approximation, an analysis is made in terms of analysis suitability and implementation aspects for several Spline basis functions as Hierarchical B-Splines (HB-Splines), Truncated Hierarchical B-Splines (THB-Splines), T-Splines and Locally Refined B-Splines (LR B-Splines). The LR B-Spline basis is implemented. An improved refinement scheme is introduced and defines a set of analysis-suitable refinements to be used in Radioss. The refinement process of a regular coarse mesh is developed inside the solver. It allows the user to define a local refinement giving a set of instructions in the input file. The global solution is validated on industrial benchmarks, for validation cases conventionally used for industrial codes like stamping and drop test.

The mechanical behaviour of geomaterials (e.g. soils, rocks and concrete) under plastic deformation is highly complex due to that fact that they are granular materials consisting of discrete non-uniform particles. Failure of geomaterials is often related to localisation of deformation (strain-localisation) with excessive shearing inside the localised zones. The microstructure of the material then dominates the material behaviour in the localised zones. The formation of the localised zone (shear band) during plastic deformation decreases the material strength (softening) significantly and initiates the failure of the material. There are two main approaches to the numerical modelling of localisation of deformation in geomaterials; discrete and continuum. The discrete approach can provide a more realistic material description. However, in the discrete approach, the modelling of all particles is complicated and computationally very expensive for a large number of particles. On the other hand, the continuum approach is more flexible, avoids modelling the interaction of individual particles and is computationally much cheaper. However, classical continuum plasticity models fail to predict the localisation of deformation accurately due to loss of ellipticity of the governing equations, and spurious mesh-dependent results are obtained in the plastic regime. Generalised plasticity models are proposed to overcome the difficulties encountered by classical plasticity models, by relaxing the local assumptions and taking into account the microstructure-related length scale into the models. Among generalised plasticity models, Cosserat (micropolar) and stain-gradient models have shown significant usefulness in modelling localisation of deformation in granular materials in the last few decades. Currently, several elastoplastic models are proposed based on Cosserat and strain-gradient theories in the literature. The individual formulation of the models has been examined almost always in isolation and are paired with specific materials in a mostly arbitrary fashion. Therefore, there is a lack of comparative studies between these models both at the theory level and in their numerical behaviour, which hinders the use of these models in practical applications. This research aims to enable broader adoption of generalised plasticity models in practical applications by providing both the necessary theoretical basis and appropriate numerical tools. A detailed comparison of some Cosserat and strain-gradient plasticity models is provided by highlighting their similarities and differences at the theory level. Two new Cosserat elastoplastic models are proposed based on von Mises and Drucker- Prager type yield function. The finite element formulations of Cosserat and strain-gradient models are presented and compared to better understand their advantages and disadvantages regarding numerical implementation and computational cost. The finite elements and material models are implemented into the finite element program ABAQUS using the user element subroutine (UEL) and an embedded user material subroutine (UMAT) respectively. Cosserat finite elements are implemented with different Cosserat elastoplastic models. The numerical results show how the Cosserat elements behaviour in the plastic regime depends on the models, interpolation of displacement and rotation and the integration scheme. The effect of Cosserat parameters and specific formulations on the numerical results based on the biaxial test is discussed. Two new mixed-type finite elements as well as existing ones (C1, mixed-type and penalty formulation), are implemented with different strain-gradient plasticity models to determine the numerical behaviour of the elements in the plastic regime. A detailed comparison of the numerical results of Cosserat and strain-gradient elastoplastic models is provided considering specific strain-localisation problems. Finally, some example problems are simulated with both the Cosserat and strain-gradient models to identify their applicability.

The amount and morphology of the graphite phase largely controls the resulting properties of cast iron. For instance, in flake graphite cast irons the mechanical properties are low while the thermal conductivity is high. This is in contrast with spheroidal graphite cast irons where the mechanical properties are high and the thermal conductivity is low. These differences are due to the different graphite morphologies and must be accounted for in the design work and material selection of cast iron components. In this work the influence of the graphite phase on the elastic and plastic deformation behaviour of cast irons has been studied. The material grades studied originate from castings for marine diesel engine piston rings with different chemical analyses. Two groups of pearlitic cast iron materials were studied; one with differences in graphite morphology and one with grey irons that differed in graphite content. For these different material grades the mechanical properties were correlated to microstructural parameters. In addition to standard uniaxial tensile tests, acoustic emission measurements were used for the study of deformation. When studying the modulus of elasticity of the cast iron it was found that the modulus of elasticity of the inherent graphite phase depends on the roundness of the graphite particles and is due to the strong anisotropy of the graphite phase. A linear correlation between nodularity and the modulus of elasticity of the graphite phase was derived. This correlation made it possible to account for the anisotropy of the graphite phase in the model used. By applying the linear function when modelling the effective modulus of elasticity, a high accuracy between experimental and theoretical values was achieved. Another factor affecting the elastic response when subjecting a cast iron component to tensile load was found to be the plastic deformation that actually occurs at very low strains for all of the studied cast iron grades. It was observed that the plastic deformation in the low strain elastic region, quantified by using acoustic emission measurements, increased linearly with decreasing modulus of elasticity. These measurements showed that the amount of plastic deformation in the elastic region was largely controlled by the graphite morphology. It was concluded that as the roundness of the graphite particles increases, the plastic deformation activity in the elastic region decreases. The plastic deformation activity continued linearly into the pronounced plastic region of the tensile tests. A decrease in roundness or increase in graphite fraction resulted in an increase of the amount of plastic deformation and the strain hardening exponent. A dependence between strength coefficient and graphite fraction was observed. Models for the flow curves for pearlitic cast irons were developed and shown to accurately reproduce the observed experimental curves. The surveys performed and conclusions from this thesis will be helpful in the design of new cast iron materials.

The utilization of ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMAs) in small scale devices has attracted considerable attention within the last decade. However, the lack of sufficient studies on their reversible shape change mechanisms, i.e, superelasticity, magnetic field-induced martensite variant reorientation and martensitic phase transformation, at the micron and submicron length scales prevent the further development and the use of FSMAs in small scale devices. Therefore, investigating the size effects in these mechanisms has both scientific and technological relevance. Superelastic behavior of Ni54Fe19Ga27 shape memory alloy single crystalline pillars was studied under compression as a function of pillar diameter. Multiple pillars with diameters ranging between 200 nm and 10 µm were cut on a single crystalline bulk sample oriented along the [110] direction in the compression axis and with fully reversible two-stage martensitic transformation. The results revealed size dependent two-stage martensitic transformation which was suppressed for pillar sizes of 1 µm and below. We also demonstrated that the reduction in pillar diameter decreases the transformation temperature due to the difficulty of martensite nucleation in small scales. Size effects in the magnetic field-induced martensite variant reorientation were investigated in the Ni50Mn28.3Ga21.7 single crystals oriented along the [100] direction of the austenite phase. Single crystalline compression pillars were fabricated on the martensite twins between the sizes of 630 nm and 20 µm. It was found that the stress-induced and magnetic field-induced martensite variant reorientation are size dependent and became more difficult with the reduction in sample size. Surprisingly, it was still possible to magnetically activate the shape change in the micropillars which indicates the fact that magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy increases with the reduction in sample dimensions. Ni45Mn36.6Co5In13.4 pillars between the 600 nm and 10 µm diameters were investigated along the [100] direction of the austenite to study the size effects in the magnetic field-induced phase transformation (MFIPT). MFIPT was obtained down to 5 µm size in these pillars with reasonable magnetic field levels similar to their bulk counterparts.

Hydrogen is the smallest element in the periodical table. It has been shown in several studies that hydrogen has a large influence on the corrosion and cracking behaviour of stainless steels. Hydrogen is involved in several of the most common cathode reactions during corrosion and can also cause embrittlement in many stainless steels. Some aspects of the effect of hydrogen on corrosion and hydrogen-induced stress cracking, HISC, of stainless steels were studied in this work. These aspects relate to activation of test specimens for uniform corrosion testing, modification of a test cell for dewpoint corrosion testing and the mechanism of hydrogen-induced stress cracking. The results from uniform corrosion testing of superduplex stainless steels indicated that there is a large difference between passive and activated surfaces in hydrochloric acid and in lower concentrations of sulphuric acid. Hence, initial activation of the test specimen until hydrogen evolution can have a large influence on the results. This may provide another explanation for the differences in iso-corrosion curves for superduplex stainless steels that have previously been attributed to alloying with copper and/or tungsten. In concentrated sulphuric acid, potential oscillations were observed; these oscillations activated the specimen spontaneously. Due to these potential oscillations the influence of activation was negligible in this acid. An experimental set-up was developed for testing dewpoint corrosion of stainless steels in a condensate containing 1 % hydrochloric acid. There was an existing experimental set-up that had to be modified in order to avoid azeotroping of the water and hydrogen chloride system. A separate flask with hydro chloric acid was included in the experimental set-up. The final set-up provided reasonably good agreement with field exposures in contrary to much higher corrosion rates in the original set-up. Relaxation and low temperature creep experiments have been performed with several stainless steels in this work. The aim was to understand how creep and relaxation relates to material properties and the relative ranking between the tested materials. For low temperature creep with a load generating stresses below the yield strength, as well relaxation at stress levels above and below the yield strength, the same ranking with respect to changes in mechanical properties of the steel grades was found. For low temperature creep with a load level above the yield strength, the same ranking was not obtained. This effect can most probably be explained by annihilation and generation of dislocations. During low temperature creep above the yield strength, dislocations were generated. In addition, low temperature creep experiments were performed forone superduplex stainless steel in two different product forms with differentaustenite spacing in the microstructure. The superduplex material experienced low temperature creep at a lower load level for the material with large austenite spacing compared to the one with smaller austenite spacing. Also this differenceis influenced by dislocations. In a material with small austenite spacing the dislocations have more obstacles that they can be locked up against. Studies of the fracture surfaces of hydrogen induced stress cracking, HISC, tested duplex stainless steels showed that HISC is a hydrogen-enhanced localised plasticity, HELP, mechanism. Here a mechanism that takes into account the inhomogeneous deformation of duplex stainless steels was proposed. This mechanism involves an interaction between hydrogen diffusion and plastic straining. Due to the different mechanical properties of the phases in a superduplex stainless steel, plastic straining due to low temperature creep can occur in the softer ferrite phase. A comparison between low temperature creep data showed that for the coarser grained material, HISC occurs at the load levelwhen creep starts. However, in the sample with small austenite spacing, HISC did not occur at this load level. Microhardness measurements indicated that the hydrogen level in the ferrite was not high enough to initiate cracking in the coarser material. The proposed mechanism shows that occurrence of HISC is an interaction between local plasticity and hydrogen diffusion. / QC20100618

The key to the understanding of the mechanical behavior of dual phase (DP) steels is to a large extent to be found in the microstructure. The microstructure is in its turn a result of the chemical composition and the process parameters during its production. In this thesis the connection between microstructure and mechanical properties is studied, with focus on the microstructure development during annealing in a continuous annealing line. In-line trials as well as the lab simulations have been carried out in order to investigate the impact of alloying elements and process parameters on the microstructure. Further, a dislocation model has been developed in order to analyze the work hardening behavior of DP steels during plastic deformation. From the in-line trials it was concluded that there is an inheritance from the hot rolling process both on the microstructure and properties of the cold rolled and annealed product. Despite large cold rolling reductions, recrystallization and phase transformations, the final dual phase steel is still effected by process parameters far back in the production chain, such as the coiling temperature following the hot rolling. Lab simulations showed that the microstructure and consequently the mechanical properties are impacted not only by the chemical composition of the steel but also by a large number of process parameters such as soaking temperature, cooling rate prior to quenching, quench and temper annealing temperature. / QC 20101004