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While divorce can be challenging for children at any age, research suggests that children under the age of six are at increased risk for behavioral and developmental delays (Emery, 1999; Hetherington, 1979, Wallerstein and Blakeslee, 1989). Despite their increased risk, the majority of research on children's adjustment post-divorce has focused on older school age children and adolescents (Jennings and Howe, 2001; Mutchler, Hunt, Koopman, and Mutchler, 1992) rather than young children. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to explore the experience of divorce for young children (ages 5-7 old). Results produced five themes regarding children's emotional experience of divorce, which include trying to make sense of the divorce, feelings they experience/how they describe themselves, experience and advice: "]stop fighting,"what they worry about, and coping skills/ways to distract themselves. Discussion conjectures about these themes and makes suggestions for clinical implications and future studies in an effort to mitigate short-term consequences and help children cope with their parents' divorce. / Master of Science

This research brings together two concepts that are often depicted as polar opposites. Sutton-Smith (2001) however suggests that the opposite of play is not work, but depression, and moreover echoes other scholars in reclaiming play as an essential human expression, even for adults. This study, therefore, argues that, given the precarious wellness territory our workplaces are in, something about work is not working. It is furthermore proposed that, given all the evidence of the therapeutic potential inherent to play, there is indeed something nutritious at play in play. Despite these well-supported arguments, play remains hidden away in the academic shadows of more serious industrial psychological preoccupations. Surprisingly, the same conspicuous absence is even mirrored in Positive Psychology, a bustling field that claims to celebrate glee, fun, and happiness (Seligman, 2002a). Entitled “An autoethnographic exploration of play at work,” this dissertation leans on the metaphor of “exploration”, or more specifically, exploratory play. This results in two distinct yet interwoven dimensions to the research study. Firstly, the research approaches the phenomenon of play and play-based methods in workshop contexts through the lived experience of the researcher. Secondly, the research project in itself is conceptualised as work, and the methodology of autoethnography is conceptualised as a playful approach to this work of conducting research. Aside from widening the research scope, this also appropriately matches research methodology to the research domain. Aside from being about play at work, this research also is play at work. Autoethnography, as a recent development in qualitative research, remains unconventional and somewhat controversial in the South African social sciences. Autoethnography, as an offspring of ethnography, offers a method to reflexively incorporate the researcher’s own lived experience in the study of culture as a primary source of rich phenomenological data. Instead of minimising the emotive and subjective, this research amplifies and celebrates it. Given a fair degree of unfamiliarity in terms of autoethnography as well the accusation of being overly self-centred, the experience of the researcher is then complemented by the views of a number of co-creators to the culture being studied. This is done through external data-gathering in the forms of a focus group as well as number of semistructured, dyadic interviews. While therefore leaning more toward postmodern themes, this research also incorporates what has been termed analytical autoethnography (Anderson, 2006), wherein the researcher is a full-member of the setting being studied, is portrayed as such and is committed to theoretical analysis. This study can therefore be summarised as an autoethnographic case study that balances evocative and analytical styles (Vryan, 2006) while emanating from the philosophical assumptions of interpretivism and subjectivism. Internal realities and meaning-creation are thus emphasised rather than the received views of positivism. The central research question being explored is how play and play-based methods promote work-related well-being. To answer this question, firstly, play and play-based methods are explored, both from a theoretical and practical point of view. From within workshop (pedagogical) contexts, the play-based methods considered throughout this study include metaphor and story, creative-arts-based play, physical-body play and also the uncelebrated yet essential methods of icebreakers and games. A preliminary taxonomy is proposed for play-based methods to offer description and to facilitate reflection and learning. Descriptive elements in this taxonomy include interactive vs. solitary, competitive vs. cooperative, motor-sensory vs. cognitive-mind, participative vs. vicarious and rule-bound vs. improvisational. Building on this exploration of play-based methods, the second aspect explored in more detail has to do with the more internal and subjective experiences of participants, or players, if you like. These experiences are then related to prominent concepts encountered in Positive Psychology to, by proxy, understand how they relate to work-related well-being. Significant themes that emerge from this include play as fun, play as mind-body integration, play as authenticity, play as community, and play as stress-relief and resilience. This is then woven into a creative non-fiction, in accord with a trend in qualitative research called creative analytical practices (CAP) (Richardson, 2000). This creative non-fiction, detailed in Chapter 4, forms a key autoethnographic output that animates all these themes in a way that is accessible, evocative and playful. Chapter 5 complements this chapter with an in-depth exploration of the research journey as a confessional tale. While adopting the metaphor of hiking in mountains (exploring nature), this confessional tale clarifies the research process and incorporates an in-depth analysis of the themes, both in terms of research data as well as literature. This is supported by a number of separate appendixes, including interview transcripts, depictions of the interview analysis as well as a number of photos from the field. In terms of its uniqueness and unconventionality, this research joins in the choir of related work to incorporate more contemporary research genres into the social sciences in South Africa. By doing so, it opens up doors to phenomena that simply resist being studied with the ontological and epistemological assumptions of conventional modern science. Furthermore, the effect and impact of this research is that it provides accessible and practical ideas as to how a synthesis of play and work can help us renew and rejuvenate our work and workplaces. That is, how we can come alive in the work contexts that risk becoming sterile, clinical and inhuman in the wake of Taylorist reductionism and efficiency. Given that state of work and workplace, and the productive and therapeutic potential in play, indeed, we are too busy not to play. / Thesis (MCom (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Mental health problems can interfere with a child's ability to succeed in school (Hootman, Houck, & King, 2003) and ultimately increase the risk of family dysfunction, drug abuse, juvenile incarcerations, and school drop out (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2004). Because young children often lack the verbal skills needed to communicate anxieties or fears and because children naturally communicate through the use of play, elementary school counselors realize that play therapy is an appropriate alternative to talk therapy (Landreth, 2002). Although recent studies have demonstrated the efficacy of play therapy with elementary school students suffering from conduct disorders (Cochran & Cochran, 1999), autism, obsessive compulsive disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, cerebral palsy (Johnson, McLeod, & Fall, 1997), post traumatic stress disorder (Shen & Sink, 2002), and children at risk (Post, 1999), no studies have examined the specifics of how elementary school counselors who utilize play therapy deliver it to their students. The purpose of this study was to examine the use, beliefs, perceived barriers, and methods of play therapy delivery by elementary school counselors. Additionally, this study examined the methods used to overcome barriers to implementing play therapy. While the elementary school counselors surveyed in this study seem to agree that play therapy is useful to their students, and an overwhelming majority use it (78.8%), roughly half had not received any formal play therapy training. Several barriers to implementing play therapy were identified including a lack of time, space, training, resources, and support and/or understanding from parents, teachers, or school administrators. Participants discussed the methods they use to overcome barriers, such as buying their own play therapy materials and educating faculty and parents about the positive effects of play therapy through the use of newsletters, brochures, and bulletin boards. Respondents used over 30 different play therapy techniques; the three most utilized techniques were drawing, board games, and role play. Implications for elementary school counselor practice and training were given, as well as implications for future research.

This research brings together two concepts that are often depicted as polar opposites. Sutton-Smith (2001) however suggests that the opposite of play is not work, but depression, and moreover echoes other scholars in reclaiming play as an essential human expression, even for adults. This study, therefore, argues that, given the precarious wellness territory our workplaces are in, something about work is not working. It is furthermore proposed that, given all the evidence of the therapeutic potential inherent to play, there is indeed something nutritious at play in play. Despite these well-supported arguments, play remains hidden away in the academic shadows of more serious industrial psychological preoccupations. Surprisingly, the same conspicuous absence is even mirrored in Positive Psychology, a bustling field that claims to celebrate glee, fun, and happiness (Seligman, 2002a). Entitled “An autoethnographic exploration of play at work,” this dissertation leans on the metaphor of “exploration”, or more specifically, exploratory play. This results in two distinct yet interwoven dimensions to the research study. Firstly, the research approaches the phenomenon of play and play-based methods in workshop contexts through the lived experience of the researcher. Secondly, the research project in itself is conceptualised as work, and the methodology of autoethnography is conceptualised as a playful approach to this work of conducting research. Aside from widening the research scope, this also appropriately matches research methodology to the research domain. Aside from being about play at work, this research also is play at work. Autoethnography, as a recent development in qualitative research, remains unconventional and somewhat controversial in the South African social sciences. Autoethnography, as an offspring of ethnography, offers a method to reflexively incorporate the researcher’s own lived experience in the study of culture as a primary source of rich phenomenological data. Instead of minimising the emotive and subjective, this research amplifies and celebrates it. Given a fair degree of unfamiliarity in terms of autoethnography as well the accusation of being overly self-centred, the experience of the researcher is then complemented by the views of a number of co-creators to the culture being studied. This is done through external data-gathering in the forms of a focus group as well as number of semistructured, dyadic interviews. While therefore leaning more toward postmodern themes, this research also incorporates what has been termed analytical autoethnography (Anderson, 2006), wherein the researcher is a full-member of the setting being studied, is portrayed as such and is committed to theoretical analysis. This study can therefore be summarised as an autoethnographic case study that balances evocative and analytical styles (Vryan, 2006) while emanating from the philosophical assumptions of interpretivism and subjectivism. Internal realities and meaning-creation are thus emphasised rather than the received views of positivism. The central research question being explored is how play and play-based methods promote work-related well-being. To answer this question, firstly, play and play-based methods are explored, both from a theoretical and practical point of view. From within workshop (pedagogical) contexts, the play-based methods considered throughout this study include metaphor and story, creative-arts-based play, physical-body play and also the uncelebrated yet essential methods of icebreakers and games. A preliminary taxonomy is proposed for play-based methods to offer description and to facilitate reflection and learning. Descriptive elements in this taxonomy include interactive vs. solitary, competitive vs. cooperative, motor-sensory vs. cognitive-mind, participative vs. vicarious and rule-bound vs. improvisational. Building on this exploration of play-based methods, the second aspect explored in more detail has to do with the more internal and subjective experiences of participants, or players, if you like. These experiences are then related to prominent concepts encountered in Positive Psychology to, by proxy, understand how they relate to work-related well-being. Significant themes that emerge from this include play as fun, play as mind-body integration, play as authenticity, play as community, and play as stress-relief and resilience. This is then woven into a creative non-fiction, in accord with a trend in qualitative research called creative analytical practices (CAP) (Richardson, 2000). This creative non-fiction, detailed in Chapter 4, forms a key autoethnographic output that animates all these themes in a way that is accessible, evocative and playful. Chapter 5 complements this chapter with an in-depth exploration of the research journey as a confessional tale. While adopting the metaphor of hiking in mountains (exploring nature), this confessional tale clarifies the research process and incorporates an in-depth analysis of the themes, both in terms of research data as well as literature. This is supported by a number of separate appendixes, including interview transcripts, depictions of the interview analysis as well as a number of photos from the field. In terms of its uniqueness and unconventionality, this research joins in the choir of related work to incorporate more contemporary research genres into the social sciences in South Africa. By doing so, it opens up doors to phenomena that simply resist being studied with the ontological and epistemological assumptions of conventional modern science. Furthermore, the effect and impact of this research is that it provides accessible and practical ideas as to how a synthesis of play and work can help us renew and rejuvenate our work and workplaces. That is, how we can come alive in the work contexts that risk becoming sterile, clinical and inhuman in the wake of Taylorist reductionism and efficiency. Given that state of work and workplace, and the productive and therapeutic potential in play, indeed, we are too busy not to play. / Thesis (MCom (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Master of Science / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Anthony Jurich / Play is essential to child development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and youth. The integration of play and play therapy techniques with child and family therapy offers a creative, age appropriate way to provide mental health treatment. This report offers an overview of play therapy, the therapeutic value of play, the historical background, theory, techniques, materials, and settings. Further, it provides the reader with many therapeutic modalities in which to implement play in family therapy. Because play therapy is a specialized field, this report also provides the reader with information on how to use this to create a marketing niche. This report was written with the Masters’ or Doctoral student in mind, as well as practicing therapists; with hopes to provide them a creative avenue in which to enhance their current therapeutic modalities.

Barns mentala ohälsa ökar kraftigt. Barnpsykoterapi med inslag av fri lek, här kallad lekterapi, har under många år varit den traditionella behandlingen av barn i behov av psykoterapi. För att ha en möjlighet att kunna jämföras vetenskapligt med andra dokumenterade behandlingsmetoder behöver evidensen för lekterapi som behandlingsmetod undersökas, stärkas liksom spridas.  Syftet med föreliggande uppsats är att undersöka kunskapsläget inom lekterapi som behandlingsmetod inom barnpsykoterapi.  Totalt 41 studier har granskats systematiskt enligt evidensbaserad medicinsk metod. Tjugoen av dem poängbedömdes medan övriga 20 delades upp i temagrupper för att visa ett ytterligare djup och bredd av de analyserade studierna. Tretton studier av de 21 poängbedömda fick minst 80% av totalpoängen, gradering I, och sju stycken graderingen II, d. v. s. 70-80% av max poängen. Enligt internationell praxis av gradering av evidensstyrka för slutsatser, visar två studier, eller fler, med ett högt bevisvärde eller god systematisk översikt på ett starkt vetenskapligt underlag som ger god evidens. Som ett bifynd visade sig 16 av de 41 studierna även ha en direkt anknytning till affektiv neurovetenskaplig forskning.  Rekommendationen är att använda barnpsykoterapi med fri lek för barn som ska behandlas vid mental ohälsa.

The purpose of this study was to determine factors that affect pre-kindergarten children’s successful play behaviors. Using a multimethods research design, a series of separate studies were combined to determine the relationships among gender, social skills, sociometric status, and play behaviors. The study was conducted in two child development centers where children who have long been together at the center are joined by new children for their pre-kindergarten year. Each child participated in a sociometric analysis by choosing pictures of up to five classmates he/she most likes to play with and responded to interview questions on how children successfully join in play. Teachers assessed each child’s play behaviors using brief Likert Scale surveys. From the sociometric scores, the most chosen boys and girls and the least chosen boys and girls from each classroom were observed during outdoor play sessions while the researcher coded social and nonsocial play behaviors, play entry strategies, and gender and size of the group being entered. The following questions guided this basic research study: (1) What are the effects of gender and familiarity on children’s sociometric choices? (2) Do often-chosen and seldom-chosen children differ in play entry and play behaviors exhibited during outdoor play? (3) Is there a relationship between a child’s knowledge of play entry strategies, social status, and the child’s play behaviors? (4) Is there a relationship between a child’s sociometric score, observed social skills, and a teacher’s assessment of that child’s social skills? This study found the following: Children of both genders prefer same gender playmates. Gender was not a determinate of whether a child chose a student new to the center as a playmate. Seldom-chosen children make more polite requests to play than often-chosen children. Often-chosen children respond to more approaches and spend more time in social play than seldom-chosen children. Most children have knowledge of appropriate play entry strategies, but they do not always implement strategies they know are successful. Teachers know which children spend their time in social play but not which children are most chosen by classmates. Suggestions for teachers and centers and recommendations for future research are provided.

published_or_final_version / Social Work / Master / Master of Social Work

There has been a growing amount of research on play therapy skills training both with parents and teachers. These studies revealed promising results on the effectiveness of play therapy skills training; however, a majority of the studies were quantitative in nature. The current study implemented a qualitative approach to exploring teachers’ beliefs about children’s play and play therapy by investigating the perceptions and experiences of a group of teacher participants who received play therapy skills training. Individual interviews were conducted and data analysis generated category themes to answer research questions. Findings suggested that the play therapy skills training had an impact on teachers, the child of focus, and the teacher-child relationships. The training led to changes in teacher participants’ perceptions of play, play therapy, and children, and a pattern seemed to emerge in the influence the training had on teachers. Teachers perceived changes in themselves in terms of awareness, attitudes, skills, and emotions. Teachers’ views of play appeared to be changed and shaped to be more consistent with the ideas of play therapy. Two of the four teachers reported observing positive changes in behaviors of the child of focus. Three of the teacher participants indicated changes in teacher-child relationships with the child of focus. Teachers seemed to generalize play therapy skills from the playroom to the classroom. Teachers perceived that using play therapy skills helped them build better relationships with children, interact with children more positively, manage the class more effectively, and ultimately reduce their stress and frustration. Overall, the play therapy skills training suggested positive results with teacher participants, the child of focus, and teacher-child relationships. However, there were also challenges, disadvantages, and constraints observed and perceived by the teachers. Challenging issues in applying play therapy skills in the classroom included the perceived difficulty of being both a teacher and a therapeutic agent to the child of focus, and finding an appropriate classroom balance between permissiveness and structure. Three of the four teacher participants expressed their desire and excitement to continue applying play therapy skills with other students in a new school year. Implications and limitations of the study, and recommendations for further research are discussed. / text