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Retained Placenta and Postpartum HaemorrhageBelachew, Johanna January 2015 (has links)
The aim was to explore the possibility to diagnose retained placental tissue and other placental complications with 3D ultrasound and to investigate the impact of previous caesarean section on placentation in forthcoming pregnancies. 3D ultrasound was used to measure the volumes of the uterine body and cavity in 50 women with uncomplicated deliveries throughout the postpartum period. These volumes were then used as reference, to diagnose retained placental tissue in 25 women with secondary postpartum haemorrhage. All but three of the 25 women had retained placental tissue confirmed at histopathology. The volume of the uterine cavity in women with retained placental tissue was larger than the reference in most cases, but even cavities with no retained placental tissue were enlarged (Studies I and II). Women with their first and second birth, recorded in the Swedish medical birth register, were studied in order to find an association between previous caesarean section and retained placenta. The risk of retained placenta with heavy bleeding (>1,000 mL) and normal bleeding (≤1,000 mL) was estimated for 19,459 women with first caesarean section delivery, using 239,150 women with first vaginal delivery as controls. There was an increased risk of retained placenta with heavy bleeding in women with previous caesarean section (adjusted OR 1.61; 95% CI 1.44-1.79). There was no increased risk of retained placenta with normal bleeding (Study III). Placental location, myometrial thickness and Vascularisation Index were recorded on 400 women previously delivered by caesarean section. The outcome was retained placenta and postpartum haemorrhage (≥1,000 mL). There was a trend towards increased risk of postpartum haemorrhage for women with anterior placentae. Women with placenta praevia had an increased risk of retained placenta and postpartum haemorrhage. Vascularisation Index and myometrial thickness did not associate (Study IV). In conclusion: 3D ultrasound can be used to measure the volume of the uterine body and cavity postpartum, but does not increase the diagnostic accuracy of retained placental tissue. Previous caesarean section increases the risk of retained placenta in subsequent pregnancy, and placenta praevia in women with previous caesarean section increases the risk for retained placenta and postpartum haemorrhage.
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A systematic review of best practices in the acute management of postpartum haemorrhage in primary maternity care settingsBoltman-Binkowski, Haaritha January 2018 (has links)
Magister Curationis - MCur / Background: Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is one of the most preventable causes of maternal death, yet it still ranks as one of the main conditions responsible for maternal mortality. PPH occurs at a stage when a mother is the least likely to receive care, and mothers often do not survive to be referred to a more specialised level of care. This is compounded by the patient not being able to warn healthcare providers timeously about their condition and healthcare providers lacking training resulting in a lack of accuracy in diagnosis, lack of resources, and differing methods of treatment. Due to the lack of consensus in available treatment options, and the paucity of research aimed at clinical interventions for midwives at the primary care level, this research report aimed to investigate the evidence in order to establish the best practices and evidence for clinical interventions to manage postpartum haemorrhage for midwives at the primary care level. This is to ensure that the continuing education for midwives in practice is based on evidence to keep their skill set current and expose practitioners to the latest evidence based care.
Aim: To systematically review all available published evidence for the acute non-pharmaceutical, non-surgical, management of PPH for use by midwives at a primary maternity care setting.
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How much is too much? : exploring clinical recognition of excessive maternal blood loss during childbirthHancock, Angela January 2017 (has links)
Background: Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal death worldwide. For every woman that dies, 20 or 30 more will experience morbidity. Severe PPH is increasing and is the leading cause of severe maternal morbidity in the UK. Rapid recognition of PPH is essential, but concealed bleeding, underestimation of blood loss and a failure to appreciate the physiological effects of blood loss, lead to delays in recognition and treatment. Experts believe that most deaths from PPH could be avoided by earlier diagnosis, but there is a lack of evidence on how to achieve this. Aims: To explore the experiences of those involved in evaluating blood loss during childbirth; and to develop and test a theory of blood loss evaluation and PPH recognition, as a prerequisite to developing strategies to support earlier diagnosis. Study Design: A sequential, exploratory mixed methods design was used. Methods: Qualitative methods included 8 focus groups and 19 one-to-one semi-structured interviews, conducted with 50 participants. These included: women and their birth partners (recruited from Liverpool Women's Hospital); and health professionals (midwives and obstetricians recruited from Saint Mary's Hospital, Manchester). A purposive sampling strategy was used to recruit women, who had experienced vaginal birth with or without PPH, and health professionals, with varying levels of experience in blood loss evaluation and PPH management. A snowball sampling strategy was used to recruit the birth partners of women participants. Phase one was completed from June to September 2014. All discussions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data were managed using NVivo 10 qualitative data analysis software, which also supported the Framework approach to analysis and interpretation. Quantitative methods were used in phase two and involved 10 midwives and 11 obstetricians, recruited from Liverpool Women's Hospital, during February and March 2015. Two scenarios, one of fast and one of slow blood loss, were presented to the sample using clinical simulation with the NOELLE® childbirth simulator, in a pilot, randomised, cross-over study. Participants also completed three questions about the use of the NOELLE® mannequin for these types of scenarios. IBM SPSS Statistics version 23 software was used for quantitative data management and to estimate descriptive statistics. Numerical crossover data were copied into StatsDirect software, to perform the crossover analyses. Results: Women and birth partners were very perceptive to blood loss but felt ill-prepared for the reality of bleeding, with many experiencing negative emotional responses to both PPH and the lochia. Non-verbal communication from staff was used by women and their birth partners to interpret the seriousness of their blood loss. Health professionals: Recognition of PPH mainly occurs as an automatic response to the speed of blood flow. Volume of blood loss is often ascertained and used retrospectively after a PPH diagnosis, to validate the intuitive response and to guide and justify on-going decisions. This was confirmed by the simulation studies, where treatment was initiated at 100ml or less in all blood loss scenarios. Fast blood loss was more likely than slow blood loss to elicit a PPH response, despite volumes in the two groups being similar. Formal quantification of blood loss is not used routinely in practice. When it is used, values are often unofficially normalised to reflect health professionals' perceptions of the woman's clinical condition. Tools introduced to aid diagnosis, such as blood collection bags, routine weighing and the use of early warning scores, are not routinely used in the immediate post-birth period, especially if the woman and her blood loss are perceived to be normal. The tools are again used to validate intuitive feelings about blood loss and maternal condition. When they are used, the values are often modified if they contradict professional judgement. Conclusions: Women and birth partners want more information, open communication, and on-going support, to minimise the emotional impact of blood loss. For health professionals, the speed of blood loss is the crucial factor in PPH recognition rather than an accurate assessment of the volume of blood loss. The amount of visible blood is generally not initially interpreted as a volume, but is used to compare current blood losses to those previously witnessed. Experience therefore plays a crucial role in the decisions of whether blood loss is considered normal or excessive. Formal quantification of blood loss and regular recording of physiological observations do not occur routinely in the immediate post-birth period. Therefore, women with insidious blood loss can have delayed PPH diagnosis because they have a normal blood flow and exhibit minimal physiological changes, due to the compensatory mechanisms of shock. Often such women need to exhibit outward signs of physiological compromise, such as fainting or feeling unwell, before their physiological observations and blood loss are formally re-evaluated. Education of health professionals should highlight the common errors of judgement made during blood loss evaluation and provide feedback on cases of delayed recognition. Future research should examine normal postnatal bleeding in the hours following birth, and create visual aids for women to self-diagnose insidious blood loss. Training should focus on the skills of PPH recognition, particularly those with insidious blood loss and postnatal physiological assessments. Novel tools such as the shock index should be considered and evaluated as tools of assessment.
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Postpartum Haemorrhage in Humanitarian Crises : Obstacles and facilitators to the adoption of the non-pneumatic anti-shock garment (NASG) into humanitarian settingsLofthouse, Clare January 2014 (has links)
In 2013 around 289,000 women died from what was categorised as maternal complications. This figure is likely to be higher as only 40% of the world has an adequately function health reporting system (WHO et al 2014, p.1). Severe bleeding causes around 27% of all maternal deaths; this is the single biggest threat to pregnancy and childbirth. Moreover, maternal complications are the second biggest cause of death for women of reproductive age globally. The risks women and girls face through pregnancy and childbirth are the outcome of socio-cultural structures and norms, which increase the inequalities in many societies. The decisions we make, the choices we have, and the actions we carry out are a product of our social system’s structures and norms. Humanitarian crises painfully display the divisiveness and destruction that these structures and norms can have on the members of that system. But, crises also offer an opportunity to either, rebuild structures and norms in a way that reduces inequality and protects the vulnerable, or a regression to more traditional, more patriarchal and more hierarchical structures and norms which will ultimately disadvantage women and girls further in their plight for equality. There is a vicious circle of poverty and mortality that can be triggered by maternal death. In order to prevent these cycles from continuing, creative, simple and appropriate strategies need to be developed for humanitarian response that build on the knowledge systems and capacities of those affected, as well as the experience and expertise of practitioners. Instead of a discussion between development or humanitarian, the conversation should try to find ways for all interventions to be more homophilious with those affected and ensure that they do not worsen the structures protecting the most vulnerable. Innovation has long since been seen as a process for those who ‘have’, and not for those who ‘have not’. Criticisms of increasing inequality through a division based on socio-economic markers have only led to self-fulfilling stereotypes of who is innovative and who is not. This research is trying to shift the focus from one that is divisive to a more inclusionary approach. To address maternal mortality caused by severe bleeding, it is imperative to understand the context in which it is happening. Who is affected? Why? What do they think and believe? What happens to the family, the community? How are the structures and norms of the society affecting it? What solutions have been offered? In answering these questions it is clear how far the impact of maternal mortality can reach. It is the hope of this research, that its can be used to reduce and lessen this impact through better-targeted and tailored responses using appropriate tools – such as the non-pneumatic anti-shock garment, implemented in a mind frame of sustainability and resilience in an environment receptive to innovation. There is a need for fresh ideas and approaches to reduce a burden that does not exist in resource stable parts of the world, and a burden that has come to be seen as a problem of the poor. The non-pneumatic anti-shock garment is a game changer. It has the potential to inspire interest and access health systems, yet implementation thus far has been limited in humanitarian response. This research investigates maternal mortality caused by postpartum haemorrhage in humanitarian crises, in an endeavour to improve the discussion on including the NASG into the MISP as an appropriate tool to fight maternal mortality and the inequality that is found at its root.
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Promotion of the Availability and Accessibility of Misoprostol under the CEDAW: Postpartum Haemorrhage among the Rural Women of the Kyrgyz RepublicNaamatova, Gulnaz 15 December 2011 (has links)
Maternal mortality in Kyrgyzstan is a discrimination of women not only based on sex, but also on rural/urban setting. Rural women are most likely to die of haemorrhage than urban women in Kyrgyzstan. Postpartum haemorrhage constitutes 45 per cent of all maternal deaths in Kyrgyzstan. This work concentrates on the obligations of Kyrgyzstan under articles 12 and 14.b of the Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). The work analyses the nature and scope of state obligations under respective articles. Kyrgyzstan has obligations to respect, protect and fulfill rural women’s human rights to address discriminations against rural women, provide appropriate health services and ensure availability and accessibility of misoprostol to rural women. Misoprostol is more suitable to the conditions of rural area than traditionally used oxytocin. Therefore, the availability and accessibility of rural women to misoprostol will prevent avoidable maternal deaths in haemorrhage.
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Promotion of the Availability and Accessibility of Misoprostol under the CEDAW: Postpartum Haemorrhage among the Rural Women of the Kyrgyz RepublicNaamatova, Gulnaz 15 December 2011 (has links)
Maternal mortality in Kyrgyzstan is a discrimination of women not only based on sex, but also on rural/urban setting. Rural women are most likely to die of haemorrhage than urban women in Kyrgyzstan. Postpartum haemorrhage constitutes 45 per cent of all maternal deaths in Kyrgyzstan. This work concentrates on the obligations of Kyrgyzstan under articles 12 and 14.b of the Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). The work analyses the nature and scope of state obligations under respective articles. Kyrgyzstan has obligations to respect, protect and fulfill rural women’s human rights to address discriminations against rural women, provide appropriate health services and ensure availability and accessibility of misoprostol to rural women. Misoprostol is more suitable to the conditions of rural area than traditionally used oxytocin. Therefore, the availability and accessibility of rural women to misoprostol will prevent avoidable maternal deaths in haemorrhage.
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Rôle et évolution du fibrinogène chez la femme enceinte : analyses en sang total par thrombo-élastométrie et implications pour les hémorragies de la délivrance / Role and course of fibrinogen during pregnancy : whole blood analyses by thromboelastometry and relation to postpartum haemorrhagesHuissoud, Cyril 12 December 2011 (has links)
Le rôle du fibrinogène dans les coagulopathies par hémorragie a fait récemment l'objet de travaux importants, la plupart hors du champ obstétrical. L'adaptation de la coagulation et du fibrinogène au cours de la grossesse est méconnue même si sa mise en jeu paraît indispensable à l'hémostase utérine lors de la délivrance. Nous avons donc étudié les modifications gestationnelles du fibrinogène et analysé leurs impacts sur la coagulation et l'hémorragie de la délivrance (HDD). Nous avons montré que le fibrinogène augmentait progressivement pendant la grossesse pour atteindre [3,5-6,5 g/L] (5ème-95ème p.) au 3ème trimestre. L'étude en thromboélastométrie (TEM) a révélé une élévation progressive du "potentiel coagulant" et de la fermeté du caillot chez la femme enceinte. Nous avons ensuite analysé le lien entre le taux initial de fibrinogène lors d'une HDD et le risque d'aggravation (Etude PITHAGORE 6). Le taux de fibrinogène était le meilleur marqueur du risque d'évolution grave. Des seuils de fibrinogène inférieurs à 2 et 3 g/L étaient associés à un risque accru d'aggravation par rapport aux femmes avec un taux > 3 g/L (respectivement OR=11,99 ; IC95% [2,56-56,06] et OR=1.90; IC95% [1,16-3,09]. Enfin l'étude en TEM a montré que les paramètres précoces CA5- et CA15-FIBTEM étaient étroitement corrélés aux taux de fibrinogène lors des HDD permettant l'optimisation du monitorage de la coagulation. Nos résultats nous conduisent à proposer deux scores de coagulopathie obstétricale prenant en compte les spécificités de la grossesse. Des essais seront nécessaires pour valider la pertinence de ces scores et pour évaluer le bénéfice de la compensation précoce en fibrinogène dans les HDD / The role of fibrinogen in haemorrhage-induced coagulopathies has recently been the subject of important work, most of it outside the field of obstetrics. The changes in coagulation and fibrinogen during pregnancy are poorly understood, even though its involvement is essential for uterine haemostasis during the afterbirth. We thus studied the course of fibrinogen levels during pregnancy and analysed their effects on coagulation and postpartum (third-stage) haemorrhage (PPH). We showed that fibrinogen increases progressively during pregnancy, reaching [3.5-6.5 g/L] (5th-95th p.) during the 3rd trimester. The thromboelastometry (TEM) study revealed a progressive increase in the coagulant potential and firmness of clots in pregnant women. We then analysed the association between the initial fibrinogen level during PPH and the risk of aggravation (in the PITHAGORE 6 study). A woman's fibrinogen level was the best marker of the risk that her condition would worsen. Thresholds below 2 and 3 g/L were associated with higher risks of aggravation than in women with fibrinogen concentrations >3g/L (respectively OR=11.99 ; 95% CI [2.56-56.06] and OR=1.90; 95% CI [1.16-3.09]. Finally the TEM study showed that FIBTEM assessment of the early indicators, clot amplitude at 5 and 15 minutes (CA5 and CA15), was closely correlated with fibrinogen levels during PPH and thus helped to optimise coagulation monitoring. Our results lead us to suggest two obstetric coagulopathy scores that take the specificities of pregnancy into account. Trials will be necessary to validate their relevance and to assess the benefits of early fibrinogen replacement in PPH
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Biomarker Identification Based on Human Electrohysterography for the Early Detection of Risk in Different Obstetric Scenarios: Preterm Birth, Induction of Labour and PostpartumDíaz Martínez, María del Alba 11 July 2024 (has links)
[ES] Durante la gestación, la mujer experimenta cambios fisiológicos, metabólicos y morfológicos que podrían conllevar importantes riesgos materno-fetales. En primer lugar, el parto prematuro es la principal causa de mortalidad infantil, con una prevalencia del 10% en gestaciones únicas (SG) y del 50% en gestaciones múltiples (MG). Por tanto, la caracterización de la actividad uterina, así como la comparación entre SG y MG, puede ayudar a comprender y manejar mejor esta patología. En segundo lugar, la inducción del parto (IOL) se asocia a un mayor riesgo de mortalidad y morbilidad materna cuando la fase latente del parto se prolonga excesivamente, especialmente en mujeres nulíparas. Sin embargo, la literatura es escasa y no se ha observado claramente la respuesta electrofisiológica uterina al fármaco de IOL. En este sentido, el estudio de biomarcadores basados en la electrohisterografía (EHG) podría ayudar a detectar precozmente el riesgo de fracaso de la IOL y orientar las decisiones clínicas en consecuencia. En tercer lugar, la hemorragia posparto (PPH) constituye una de las principales causas de mortalidad materna en el mundo. Su prevalencia es del 2-6%, y causa la muerte de 75.000 mujeres cada año. La principal causa es la atonía uterina, por lo que la EHG se convierte en la herramienta ideal para valorar el estado del útero e indicar el riesgo de PPH en función de la ausencia o no de actividad. Por ello, el objetivo de la presente tesis doctoral es la identificación de EHG-biomarcadores para la detección precoz de situaciones obstétricas de alto riesgo. Para ello, se generaron las bases de datos de señal EHG y de datos obstétricos para cada escenario en el Hospital Universitario y Politécnico La Fe. La mayor impulsividad y predictibilidad en MG respecto a SG durante el tercer trimestre, así como la correlación significativa entre los EHG-biomarcadores y el peso fetal, sugirió un acoplamiento electromecánico entre la sobredistensión y la actividad mioeléctrica registrada en superficie. En cuanto a la IOL, el grupo de éxito mostró un aumento significativo del número de contracciones y de la excitabilidad celular, junto con una menor complejidad, a partir de 2-3 horas tras la administración del fármaco de IOL. No se observaron cambios significativos con respecto a la actividad basal en el grupo de fracaso. La comparación basada en la paridad reportó una mayor ratio de progresión de la amplitud de la señal en el grupo de parosas. La actividad mioeléctrica en el postparto vaginal resultó ser más frecuente e intensa, además de exhibir una mayor excitabilidad celular que en los partos por cesárea. La capacidad discriminatoria de los biomarcadores de EHG para la detección precoz del riesgo en diversos contextos obstétricos ha hecho avanzar el conocimiento electrofisiológico actual del útero in vivo. La traslación del EHG a la práctica clínica requerirá la automatización del
procesamiento de señales, para culminar en la creación de modelos predictivos generalizados y robustos que apoyen la toma de decisiones clínicas, mejoren la planificación y gestión del parto, prevengan complicaciones maternas y fetales y optimicen la asignación de recursos hospitalarios. / [CA] Durant la gestació, la dona experimenta canvis fisiològics, metabòlics i morfològics que podrien comportar importants riscos matern-fetals. En primer lloc, el part prematur és la principal causa de mortalitat infantil, amb una prevalença del 10% en gestacions úniques (SG) i del 50% en gestacions múltiples (MG). Per tant, la caracterització de l'activitat uterina, així com la comparació entre SG i MG, ajuda a millorar la comprensió i gestió d'esta patologia. En segon lloc, la inducció del part (IOL) s'associa a un major risc de mortalitat i morbiditat materna quan la fase latent del part es prolonga excessivament, especialment en dones nul·lípares. No obstant això, la literatura és escassa i no s'ha observat clarament la resposta electrofisiològica uterina al fàrmac d'IOL. En este sentit, l'estudi de biomarcadors basats en la electrohisterografia (EHG) pot ajudar a detectar precoçment el risc de fracàs de la IOL i orientar les decisions clíniques en conseqüència. En tercer lloc, l'hemorràgia postpart (PPH) constituïx una de les principals causes de mortalitat materna en el món. La seua prevalença és del 2-6%, i causa la mort de 75.000 dones cada any. La principal causa és l'atonia uterina, per la qual cosa l'EHG es convertix en la ferramenta ideal per a valorar l'estat de l'úter i indicar el risc de PPH en funció de l'absència o no d'activitat. Per tant, l'objectiu de la present tesi doctoral és la identificació de biomarcadors d'EHG per a la detecció precoç de situacions d'alt risc obstètric. En este propòsit, s'han generat les bases de dades de senyals d'EHG i informació obstètrica de cada escenari en estudi a l'Hospital Universitari i Politècnic La Fe. La major impulsivitat i predictibilitat en MG respecte a SG durant el tercer trimestre, així com la correlació significativa entre els biomarcadors d'EHG i el pes fetal, va suggerir un acoblament electromecànic entre la sobredistensió i l'activitat mioelèctrica registrada en superfície. Pel que fa a l'IOL, el grup exitós va mostrar un augment significatiu del nombre de contraccions i de l'excitabilitat cel·lular, així com una menor complexitat, a partir de 2-3 hores tras l'administració del fàrmac de IOL. No es van observar canvis significatius respecte a l'activitat basal en el grup de fracàs. La comparació basada en la paritat va reportar una major ràtio de progressió de l'amplitud del senyal en el grup de paroses. L'activitat mioelèctrica en el postpart vaginal va ser més freqüent i intensa, a més d'exhibir una major excitabilitat cel·lular en els parts per cesària. La capacitat discriminatòria dels biomarcadors d'EHG per a la detecció precoç del risc en diversos contextos obstètrics ha fet avançar el coneixement electrofisiològic actual de l'úter in vivo. La translació de l'EHG a la pràctica clínica requerirá l'automatització del processament de senyals, per a culminar en la creació de models predictius generalitzats i robustos que donen suport a la presa de decisions clíniques, milloren la planificació i gestió del part, previnguen complicacions matern-fetals i optimitzen l'assignació de recursos hospitalaris. / [EN] During pregnancy, women undergo physiological, metabolic, and morphological changes that could lead to significant maternal-foetal risks. Firstly, preterm birth is the leading cause of infant mortality, with a prevalence 10% in single (SG) and 50% in multiple gestations (MG). The characterisation of uterine activity, as well as the comparison between SG and MG, may thus help to better understand and manage this pathology. Secondly, induction of labour (IOL) is associated with an increased risk of maternal mortality and morbidity when the latent phase of labour is excessively prolonged, especially in nulliparous women. However, the literature is sparse and the uterine electrophysiological response to the IOL drug has not been clearly observed. In this sense, the study of biomarkers based on electrohysterography (EHG) could help to early detect the risk of IOL failure and guide clinical decisions accordingly. Thirdly, postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) constitutes one of the main causes of maternal mortality in the world. Its prevalence is 2-6%, causing the death of 75,000 women each year. The main cause is uterine atony, so EHG becomes the ideal tool to assess the state of the uterus and indicate the PPH risk based on the absence or not of activity. Therefore, the aim of the present doctoral thesis is the identification of EHG-biomarkers for the early detection of high-risk obstetrical situations. For this purpose, the EHG signal and obstetric databases were generated for each scenario at University and Polytechnic Hospital La Fe. The greater impulsivity and predictability in MG compared to SG during the third trimester, in addition to the significant correlation between EHGbiomarkers and foetal weight, suggested an electromechanical coupling between overdistension and surface recorded myoelectric activity. As for IOL, the successful group showed a significant increase in the number of contractions and cellular excitability, along with reduced complexity, from 2-3 hours after the IOL drug administration. No significant changes from baseline activity were observed in the failed group. Parity-based comparison reported a higher progression ratio of signal amplitude for the parous group. Myoelectric activity in vaginal postpartum was found to be more frequent and intense, in addition to exhibit a greater cellular excitability than in caesarean deliveries. Discriminatory capacity of EHGbiomarkers for early risk detection in various obstetric contexts has advanced current electrophysiological knowledge of the uterus in vivo. The translation of the EHG to clinical practice will entail the signal processing automation, culminating in the creation of generalised and robust predictive models that support clinical decision-making, improve birth planning and management, prevent maternal and foetal complications and optimise the allocation of hospital resources. / This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the European Regional Development Fund (MCIU/AEI/FEDER, UE RTI2018-094449-A-I00-AR and PID2021-124038OB-I00 and the Generalitat Valenciana (AICO/2019/220) / Díaz Martínez, MDA. (2024). Biomarker Identification Based on Human Electrohysterography for the Early Detection of Risk in Different Obstetric Scenarios: Preterm Birth, Induction of Labour and Postpartum [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/206155
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