The Precautionary Principle (PP) as formulated in the context of climate change requires countries to take measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse impacts despite a lack of full scientific certainty as to such causes. The Differentiated Responsibility Principle (the DR Principle) recognizes a common responsibility of all countries to prevent climate change and calls on developed states to assume a leadership role in the global effort to prevent climate change. The DR Principle requires some developed countries to place a restriction on their GHG emissions. Unfortunately this means that at least in the short term, developing countries are not subject to greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets, thereby exacerbating the climate change problem. <p>Implementing the DR Principle in this manner conflicts with the PP. To avoid this conflict, the DR Principle should be formulated in a manner which demands some restriction on GHG emission, by developing countries. Efforts to prevent human induced climate change should be made by all countries regardless of their individual culpability for climate change if the PP is to have effect.

<p>The purpose of the present thesis is to apply philosophical methods to the ongoing debate of the precautionary principle, in order to illuminate this debate. The thesis consists of an Introduction and five papers. Paper I con-cerns an objection to the method of conceptual analysis, the Charge from Psychology. After a brief characterisation of conceptual analysis, I argue that the Charge from Psychology is misdirected. In Paper II, the method of conceptual analysis is applied to the concept of precaution which is ana-lysed in terms of precautionary actions. The purpose is explicatory. A definition involving three necessary and jointly sufficient conditions is proposed, and the implications of this analysis for the debate on the pre-cautionary principle are discussed. Paper III attempts to provide an ana-lytical apparatus which may be used for finding improved formulations of the precautionary principle. The approach is lexicographical. Several exist-ing and possible formulations of the precautionary principle are examined, and four common elements and a common structure of the precautionary principle are identified. It is suggested that the analytical apparatus pre-sented can be used in negotiations of the precautionary principle. Paper IV questions the soundness of some arguments against the precautionary prin-ciple. Five common arguments are discussed and rejected. In Paper V, two of these arguments are further discussed. I argue that an attempt at rejec-tion of the precautionary principle delivered by John Harris and Søren Holm is unwarranted, because their arguments against it are based on in-terpretations of the precautionary principle that ignore context. Paper VI deals with the idea of de minimis risk. After a discussion of the distinction between disregarding a risk and accepting it, I examine one way of deter-mining how small a risk ought to be in order to be disregarded, namely the use of natural risk levels as benchmarks. I argue that this approach fails, even if the distinction between what is natural and what is not natural can be upheld.</p>

This paper attempts to present and analyze problems that may arise from the use of Genetically Modified (GM) products and issues raised by the Intellectual Property (IP) rights that Genetic Engineering (GE) companies have on their products. Arguments in favor and against the existence of health risks and environmental risks of GM products are presented. The European policy of the socioeconomic effects of the GM products is discussed and is proposed the application of the precautionary principle for the prevention of unintended consequences from the GM products to other than health and environmental domains. The need of IP rights is supported, but is also suggested an IP rights flexibility. Do IP rights violate the rights of all people to a nourishing life, natural resources, the right to decide about what they eat and the right to live in a viable ecosystem? Finally, I provide an analysis of the effects on the farmers due to the IP rights on GM crop for cultivation and state dependency issues that may occur.

This dissertation consists of three essays on income risk and aggregate demand over the business cycle, each addressing an aspect of the Great Recession. The first chapter reframes the standard liquidity trap model to illustrate the costly feedback loop between idiosyncratic risk and aggregate demand. I first show that a liquidity trap can result from excess demand for precautionary savings in times of high uncertainty. Second, I show that the output and welfare costs of the ensuing recession depend crucially on how the drop in demand for output is translated into a reduction in demand for labor. Increased unemployment risk compounds the original rise in idiosyncratic productivity risk and reinforces precautionary motives, deepening the recession. Third, I show that increasing social insurance can raise output and welfare at the zero bound. I decompose these effects to distinguish the component unique to the liquidity trap environment and show that social insurance is most effective at the zero bound when it targets the type of idiosyncratic risk households face, which in turns depends on the labor market adjustment mechanism. The second paper offers a novel model of the connection between the consumer credit and home mortgage markets through an individual’s credit history. This paper introduces a novel justification for the home mortgage interest deduction. In an economy with both housing assets and consumer credit, the mortgage interest deduction is modeled as a subsidy for the accumulation of collateralizable assets by households who have maintained good credit. As such, the subsidy loosens participation constraints and facilitates risk-sharing. Empirical evidence and a calibration exercise reveal that the subsidy has a sizable impact on the availability of credit. The third paper assesses the role of policy uncertainty in the Great Recession. The Great Recession features substantial geographic variation in employment losses, a fact that is often presented as a challenge to uncertainty-based models of the downturn. In this paper we show that there is a substantial correlation between the distribution of employment losses and the increases in local measures of both economic and policy uncertainty. This relationship is robust across a wide range of measures. / Economics

This work develops a means to encourage states to take advantage of the flexibilities of compulsory licensing in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) which promotes access to medicines in a public health emergency. In pursuing this solution, the precautionary approach (PA) and the structure of risk analysis have been adopted as a means to build a workable reading of TRIPS and to help states embody the flexibilities of intellectual property (IP). This work argues for a PA reading of TRIPS and that states have the precautionary entitlements to determine an appropriate level of health protection from the perspective of “State responsibility” in international law. A philosophical review is conducted followed by the examination of existing international legal instruments including the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, the WHO International Health Regulations, the Codex Alimentarius, and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The PA has been found to have a pervasive influence on risk regulation in international law, yet the application is fraught with fragmentations in different legal regimes. In order to reach a harmonious interpretation and application of the PA in the WTO, the legal status of PAs of different WTO instruments have been analysed. Further, a comparative study on PAs in terms of legal status in the exemptions of the WTO and TRIPS obligations has been proposed. The political and moral basis for compulsory licencing in a public health emergency has been bolstered through the interpretation and the creation of legal status of the PA in WTO/TRIPS law.

In this article the author seeks to address the general amparoprocess under Peruvian law, according to their legislation, jurisprudence and doctrine. Also he analyzed the object of protection of amparo, and the current situation which is facing due to its denaturation by its indiscriminate use. that situation is consider by our current Constitutional Procedural Code, which states the exceptional nature of this resource to address violations of fundamental rights, so that evaluation of their origin must be on a case by case basis. Finally, the author analyzes the special status of the precautionary measures within an amparo process. / En este artículo el autor busca abordar las generalidades del proceso de amparo en el ordenamiento peruano, atendiendo a su legislación, jurisprudencia y doctrina. Asimismo, se analiza el objeto de protección del instituto de amparo y la coyuntura que atraviesa, debido a su desnaturalización por su uso indiscriminado. Dicha coyuntura es atendida por nuestro actual Código Procesal Constitucional, que señala la naturaleza excepcional de este recurso para atender vulneraciones de derechos fundamentales, por lo que la evaluación de su procedencia debe hacerse caso por caso. Finalmente, el autor analiza la especial condición de las medidas cautelares dentro de un proceso de amparo.

This paper addresses the analysis of the implementation of the overall care of by the judiciary, in the realization of the fundamental right to health, when provoked. A matter that has raised questions about the scope of coverage of the institute and the possibility of fungibility between this and injunctive relief, since such Office nevertheless take care to safeguard the process, has also been widely used to meet the objective of the claimants who seek judicial review to obtain medicines and health services through the SUS – Unified Health. / O presente trabalho cuida da análise da aplicação do poder geral de cautela pelo Poder Judiciário alagoano, na efetivação do direito fundamental à saúde, quando é provocado. Matéria que tem suscitado indagações sobre o âmbito de abrangência do referido instituto e da possibilidade de fungibilidade entre este e a tutela antecipada, uma vez que o referido instituto não obstante cuide de acautelar o processo, tem sido largamente utilizado também para satisfazer a pretensão dos autores que buscam a tutela jurisdicional para obterem medicamentos e serviços de saúde, prestado pelo Estado através do SUS - Sistema Único de Saúde.

Esta dissertação de mestrado diz respeito ao princípio da precaução - uma afirmação sobre a necessidade de agir com cautela, independentemente da incerteza sobre os potenciais impactos da atividade humana - e suas implicações para as políticas públicas, especialmente aquelas relacionadas à mudança climática. O trabalho pretende estabelecer uma ligação entre os debates em torno do princípio e a abordagem do Desenvolvimento Humano, particularmente com base nas formulações de Amartya Sen, de modo a servir de base teórica para a interpretação o princípio. O primeiro capítulo apresenta as origens, acepções e controvérsias em torno do princípio, configurando os componentes de sua definição, a saber: o seu componente ético; a incerteza sobre relações de causalidade; a demanda por ação e seus graus de força; e a necessidade de um processo participativo de tomada de decisão. O segundo capítulo apresenta alguns elementos da abordagem de Sen em relação à dimensão ética das políticas públicas e a tensão entre os critérios habituais do arcabouço convencional das decisões sociais e a liberdade mínima, e também discute a racionalidade do agente econômico, a base informacional de avaliação de consequências e ideia de justiça do autor, que conjuntamente estabelecem as bases teóricas para uma interpretação particular do princípio. Por fim, o terceiro capítulo visa utilizar essas formulações para lançar luz sobre a questão da mudança climática, já que suas características clamam pelo uso do princípio. A inerente complexidade, a potencial irreversibilidade, a incerteza e os aspectos distributivos da questão ambiental estão relacionados com os elementos centrais do princípio, mas a sua aplicação não resulta em orientações claras e incontroversas para a ação. Propõe-se que a interpretação do princípio através das lentes do Desenvolvimento Humano pode fornecer novos insights e contribuir para a formulação de políticas públicas para a Mudança Climática, de forma que Economia e Ética possam trabalhar juntas. / This master dissertation concerns the Precautionary Principle – a statement on the need to act with caution regardless of the uncertainty about the potential impacts of human activity - and its implications for Public Policy, especially those related to Climate Change. The dissertation intends to establish a link between the debates around the principle and the Human Development Approach, particularly based on Amartya Sen‟s formulations, so as to serve as a theoretical basis for interpreting the principle. The first chapter presents the origins, meanings and controversies around the principle, setting up the constituents of its definition, namely: its ethical component; the uncertainty about causal relationships; the demand for action and its degrees of strength; and the need for a participatory process of decision-making. The second chapter presents a few elements of Sen‟s approach towards the ethical dimension of public policies and the tension between the usual criteria of the conventional framework for social decisions and minimal liberty, and also discusses the rationality of the economic agent, the informational basis of consequence evaluation and the author‟s idea of justice, which combined establish the theoretical foundations for a particular interpretation of the principle. Lastly, the third chapter aims to use these formulations to throw light on the issue of Climate Change, since its characteristics call for the use of the principle. The inherent complexity, potential irreversibility, uncertainty and distributional aspects of the environmental issue are related to the core elements of the principle, but its application does not result on clear and uncontroversial guidelines for action. We propose that interpreting the principle through the lens of Human Development may provide new insights and contribute to the formulation of public policies for Climate Change in a way that Economics and Ethics may work together.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-07T14:27:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 1044225 bytes, checksum: 7ce3f5ebaaa12338d3c67849ecfc355a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-03-16 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The great revolution of humanity, in a global perspective, is the affirmation of the human being as the center of decision of the collective organization. The development of this knowledge culminates with the notion that human dignity is a reflection of the moral progress that consists recognizing in the person an inherent value around which are structured social and political organizations, that do not allow any distinction or discrimination between human beings, even if they are sane or mentally ill people. Supported by this context, the present work analyzes the way the precautionary action is implemented and executed towards mental health patients in Rio Branco-AC, in the period of 2005 to 2010, demonstrating the current execution system of this action in front of the human dignity principle. Kant s conception of human dignity was taken as a reference to develop the dignity of the mentally insane, taking the concept of autonomy in its abstract view, the individual s potential capacity to self-determine their conduct, regardless of their actual implementation by the person in concrete. The history of madness based on Foucault was seen in order to understand the process of insanity criminalization, revisiting aspects of the emergence of psychiatry and the psychiatric hospital itself. Discussion is held on the Brazilian penal system, emphasizing the consolidation of precautionary action as the institute that promotes the exclusion of the inclusion of the mentally disordered people. Emphasis is given to the psychiatric reform movement that has made feasible relevant changes to the mental health legislation and has also subsidized, although at an embryonic stage, alternative programs of treatment to the insane offender. Through the analysis of court proceedings, institutions and the interviews realized, it was possible to obtain concrete information about the current situation of the mentally ill patients who committed a criminal unjust, in Rio Branco, and verify the violations of the basic rights of citizenship, health and dignity. The research results show a need for deep reflection on the naturalization of the noted violations, since the legal process related to madness appears subverted in the whole extension of its practical application, demonstrating the paradoxes between practice and theoretical discourse. Finally, it poins to the crucial need for readjustments to the policy of implementation and application of the precautionary action in the city of Rio Branco- AC. / A grande revolução da humanidade, em perspectiva global, é a afirmação do ser humano como centro de decisão da organização coletiva. A construção deste conhecimento culmina com a noção de que a dignidade humana é o reflexo do progresso moral que consiste em reconhecer na pessoa um valor inerente em torno do qual se estruturariam as organizações sociais e políticas, não cabendo qualquer distinção ou discriminação entre os seres humanos, sejam eles sujeitos sãos ou portadores de transtornos mentais. Apoiado neste contexto, o presente trabalho analisa a forma como é aplicada e executada a medida de segurança de internação aos portadores de transtornos mentais de Rio Branco-AC, no período de 2005 a 2010, demonstrando a situação do sistema atual de execução desta medida em face do princípio da dignidade da pessoa humana. A concepção kantiana de dignidade humana foi tomada como referência para construção da dignidade do portador de transtorno mental, apropriando-se do conceito de autonomia em seu caráter abstrato, qual seja a capacidade potencial do indivíduo de autodeterminar sua conduta, independente de sua efetiva realização por parte da pessoa em concreto. Delineia-se a história da loucura com base na obra de Foucault de maneira a perceber o processo de criminalização da loucura, revisitando aspectos do surgimento da psiquiatria e do hospital psiquiátrico. Discute-se os dispositivos da legislação penal brasileira, salientando a consolidação da medida de segurança como instituto que promove a exclusão da inclusão do portador de transtorno mental. Enfatiza-se o movimento da reforma psiquiátrica, que ensejou mudanças significativas na legislação de saúde mental e tem subsidiado, ainda que de maneira embrionária, programas alternativos para o tratamento da questão do louco infrator. Através das análises dos processos judiciais, das instituições e das entrevistas relizadas foi possível obter informação concreta da situação atual dos portadores de transtornos mentais, autores de injusto penal, em Rio Branco, e verificar as violações aos direitos elementares de cidadania, saúde e dignidade. Os resultados da pesquisa demonstram a necessidade de reflexão profunda para combater a aparente apatia quanto às violações apontadas, pois o procedimento jurídico relacionado à loucura aparece subvertido em toda a extensão de sua aplicação prática, evidenciando-se os paradoxos entre a prática e o discurso teórico. Por fim, aponta-se a imprescindibilidade de readequação da política de aplicação e de cumprimento da medida de segurança de internação na cidade de Rio Branco-AC.

Devido à exploração, sem controle, dos recursos naturais, o mundo está chegando a nível de consumo que beira patamares insustentáveis, motivo pelo qual as soluções alternativas se tornam importantes para evitar impactos que possam transcender o ativismo humano. A partir desta constatação, iniciou-se a preocupação com a escassez dos recursos energéticos não renováveis, bem como com os efeitos ambientais ocasionados com a utilização indiscriminada destes. Diante disso, tendo em vista a previsão de esgotabilidade dos combustíveis fósseis e de problemas ambientais como, por exemplo, o aquecimento global ocasionado pelo excesso de emissão de gases estufa na atmosfera, faz-se necessário buscar novas alternativas energéticas para suprir as demandas futuras e garantir um meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado, direito fundamental previsto no art. 225 da Constituição Federal de 1988. Nesse contexto, a Agroenergia, por ser uma fonte de energia renovável, é apontada por muitos como um novo milagre, isto é, como uma solução para a crise energética e para os problemas ambientais. Contudo, como qualquer outra fonte, a Agroenergia também possui pontos positivos e negativos - ambientais, sociais e econômicos - que devem ser sopesados. Por isso, o Direito Ambiental, bem como seus princípios basilares da Precaução e da Prevenção, são imprescindíveis para implementação e utilização dessa importante fonte energética. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-05-19T13:23:02Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Andreia Bacarin Vieira.pdf: 1324137 bytes, checksum: adbc3c99fcda51ed303faede10a13ede (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-05-19T13:23:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Andreia Bacarin Vieira.pdf: 1324137 bytes, checksum: adbc3c99fcda51ed303faede10a13ede (MD5) / Due to the holding, without control, of natural resources, the world is reaching a level of consumption that verge unsustainable height, reason why workarounds become important to avoid impacts that can transcend the human activism. From this observation, began the concern about the scarcity of non-renewable energy resources, as well as the environmental effects caused by the indiscriminate use of these. That said, in view of the forecast of exhaustibility of fossil fuels and environmental issues, for example, global warming caused by excessive greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, it is necessary to find a new energetic alternative to meet the future demands and ensure an ecologically balanced environment, a fundamental right laid down in art. 225 of the Federal Constitution of 1988. In this context, the agroenergy, a renewable energy source is cited by many as a new miracle, i.e., as a solution to the energy crisis and environmental problems. However, like any other source, the agroenergy also has positives and negatives points - environmental, social and economic- which must be weighed. Therefore, the environmental law, as well as its principles of precaution and prevention, is indispensable for supporting implementation and use of this important energy source.