This paper investigates the influence of readers' linguistic proficiency level and working memory functions on the reading behaviors and processes of readers of Arabic as a foreign language (henceforth RAFL). Two aspects of reading comprehension, speed and accuracy, are examined in light of readers' word decoding efficiency, recall performances, response times, scores, and readers' responses to two quantitative tests: a questionnaire and an interview. Twenty-four subjects participated in this study and were divided into two subgroups based on their proficiency level. The proficiency of these subjects was determined based on their academic level and their overall GPA in Arabic. All subjects completed a series of reading passages, in two separate sessions, followed by comprehension questions. Reading and answer time on the reading passages and questions were timed and scored. Data was also collected retrospectively using a questionnaire and an interview. The results suggest that reading comprehension and the ability to select and implement specific reading processes are impacted by the proficiency level of subjects as well as their word decoding skills. A strong correlation between comprehension outcomes and working memory functions was also found. That is, working memory capacity was found to be influential on the reading behaviors of readers especially at the sentence level with better performances reported for readers with larger and more elaborate vocabulary repertoire. Based on these results, some implications and conclusions are discussed for both Arabic reading research and foreign language classroom.

The purpose of this study was to explore participants’ perceptions of the impact of a cultural proficiency workshop that discussed concepts of race and racism. Moreover, I was interested in understanding the factors and experiences associated with a greater likelihood that people would want to engage in dialogue on race and racism. The literature suggests that when discussions like these are broached, people can often become disinterested and disengaged (Derman-Sparks & Phillips, 1997; Diem & Carpenter, 2012; Singleton & Linton, 2006; Tatum, 1997). Therefore, if it is indeed pertinent for educators to be presented with knowledge that can be critical to student success, it is vital to understand what aspects of the training and what qualities of the participants lend themselves to a higher level of engagement and interest. To research these phenomena, a mixed method study design was employed. School district central office personnel were required to attend a culture proficiency professional development session which covered concepts of race and racism. I surveyed these participants to gather their perceptions about the impact of the training. In addition, several participants were interviewed. To answer the second research question, certain participants were asked to participate in a follow-up interview to determine the qualities and characteristics that created a greater likelihood that these individuals would see the importance of race-based discourse and continue these conversations. Findings suggest that workshop participants perceived that the workshop helped to increase their level of racial awareness and change their behaviors or disposition. However, it was found that additional follow-up was needed to sustain these efforts. They also expressed that these kinds of workshops are essential. For those who were likely to engage in race-based discourse, it was found that these individuals were racially aware, rejected notions of colorblindness, discovered race at a young age, were more likely to attend diverse schools and live in diverse neighborhoods and were likely to have faced discrimination as a person from an oppressed group or due to a close relationship with someone who was. / text

School-mathematics has been shown to mainly comprise rote-learning of procedures where the considerations of intrinsic mathematical properties are scarce. At the same time theories and syllabi emphasize competencies like problem solving and reasoning. This thesis will therefore concern how task design can influence the reasoning that students apply when solving tasks, and how the reasoning during practice is associated to students’ results, cognitive capacity, and brain activity. In studies 1-3, we examine the efficiency of different types of reasoning (i.e., algorithmic reasoning (AR) or creative mathematically founded reasoning (CMR)) in between-groups designs. We use mathematics grade, gender, and cognitive capacity as matching variables to get similar groups. We let the groups practice 14 different solution methods with tasks designed to promote either AR or CMR, and after one week the students are tested on the practiced solution methods. In study 3 the students did the test in and fMRI-scanner to study if the differing practice would yield any lasting differences in brain activation. Study 4 had a different approach and focused details in students’ reasoning when working on teacher constructed tasks in an ordinary classroom environment. Here we utilized audio-recordings of students’ solving tasks, together with interviews with teachers and students to unravel the reasoning sequences that students embark on. The turning points where the students switch subtask and the reasoning between these points were characterized and visualized. The behavioral results suggest that CMR is more efficient than AR, and also less dependent on cognitive capacity during the test. The latter is confirmed by fMRI, which showed that AR had higher activation than CMR in areas connected to memory retrieval and working memory. The behavioral result also suggested that CMR is more beneficial for cognitively less proficient students than for the high achievers. Also, task design is essential for both students’ choice of reasoning and task progression. The findings suggest that: 1) since CMR is more efficient than AR, students need to encounter more CMR, both during task solving and in teacher presentation, 2) cognitive capacity is important but depending on task design, cognitive strain will be more or less high during test situations, 3) although AR-tasks does not prohibit the use of CMR they make it less likely to occur. Since CMR-tasks can emphasize important mathematical properties, are more efficient than AR- tasks, and more beneficial for less cognitively proficient students, promoting CMR can be essential if we want students to become mathematically literate.

The problem addressed in this study is the need for efficient and economic methods to train naive college students to operate microcomputers as a necessary step in their acquisition of computer proficiency. Two methods of training were compared. These were training by live demonstration and training by videotape. These methods were considered economically viable because each could be presented in a classroom and neither required a one-to-one student-to-computer or student-to-tutor ratio. Four sections of an introductory computer science class were used in the study. Two classes were presented each treatment. The effectiveness of the presentations was measured by means of a written quiz administered immediately after the presentation and by the number of microcomputer system operation tasks successfully completed during an individual laboratory session. The computer anxiety level of each participant was measured prior to the presentation to determine if anxiety was a factor in finding the best training method. When scores of naive users who saw the videotape were compared with the scores of naive users who saw the live demonstration, no significant differences were found. However, when novice users (those who had some previous experience with operating or programming a microcomputer) were included, the group that saw the videotape scored significantly higher on the written quiz than the group that saw the live demonstration. A two by two analysis of variance showed no significant interactions between anxiety and treatment. User satisfaction was found to be significantly higher for the videotape group than for the live demonstration group. This study concluded with the recommendation that the Computer Science Department of North Texas State University utilize videotapes to train students in introductory classes to use a microcomputer system. This recommendation was based on the superior test results for naive and novice users who saw the videotape, the user satisfaction scores and inherent advantages of videotapes over live demonstrations.

Faculty of Arts School of Human and Community Development 0000613a Tel: 011 849 3853 / South African Speech-Language Pathologists are assessing and treating many adolescents with varying speech and language difficulties. This task is complicated by the fact that it is currently largely unknown what the language abilities of mainstream adolescents are. Some research has suggested declining language abilities, as well as significant effects of grade, gender and language background on cognitive academic language skills. As individuals grow older, the demands of the classroom environment become greater, forcing adolescents to use complex language skills in order to learn. This research paper aimed to assess the complex sentence comprehension abilities of a sample of South African adolescents, through the use of the Grammar/Listening subtest of the Test of Adolescent Language, developed by Hammill, Brown, Larsen, and Wiederholt (1980). Additionally, the effects of grade, gender, language, time spent reading for school and recreationally each week, number of television programmes watched per week, length of time spent playing computer or video games per day, preferred learning styles (group/alone and auditory/visual/both), most recent English and school report marks, and use of cellular telephones, were used to determine related factors and educational variables which might be linked to each other. Additionally, a working memory measure was included, in order to ascertain that this factor was not having a negative effect upon the comprehension scores. It was found that gender was an over-riding factor throughout the study. Females tended to do better on the complex sentence comprehension test, and also spent more time reading for school each week, obtained better English and school report marks, preferred to learn alone, and sent more sms’s. Males were only inclined to play more computer or video games per week. In opposition to the initial hypothesis that these learners would perform poorly on the TOAL subtest, it was found that participants generally performed within the average limits of the test. Correlations, one-way ANOVA’s, chi squared analyses and t-tests were performed for the secondary aims, in order to determine any relationships between the variables. Overall, though, gender was the key variable in the study, which is in line with other literature in the field. Home language and educational level had minimal effects. Further research has been recommended.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Boston University / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / The lives of eleven Latino subjects meeting strict language proficiency criteria were examined as individuals, students, peers, family members, and as members of their community. The students became bilingual and biliterate over time, having arrived in the United States as children with limited English proficiency. Factors believed to have contributed to their bilingual status were categorized in the areas of home, school, individual and society. These were identified through questionnaire, interviews and accountings of academic histories. Language proficiency was measured with story retelling tasks in each language, and scores on the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and Spanish Advanced Placement exams. Each subject became bilingual and biliterate through varied and complex circumstances. The data revealed factors that interacted in different ways for each of the subjects although they reached the same results of bilingualism and biliteracy. Two factors, however, were present in each case. One was the use of Spanish in the homes as the dominant language of the parents, and the other was the participation in Spanish language arts classes in high school. The subjects exhibited values such as loyalty to the family, respect for elders and figures of authority, a strong work ethic, and a positive perception of both the Latino identity and the Spanish language. They had all been instructed in bilingual education programs. The Spanish language arts program at the high school provided the subjects with a challenging curriculum in Spanish. They shared the perception that the high school as well as society regarded them with respect as bilingual and biliterate Latinos. The subjects held a strong image of themselves as Latinos proud to be mastering English while educated in both languages. All eleven subjects believed that Spanish was integral to their lives and that learning English did not have to be at the expense of the continued development of Spanish. / 2031-01-01

This purpose of this thesis is to explore the relationship between idiomatic knowledge and second language proficiency. As the amount of research directly related to this topic is sparse, an in-depth discussion of relevant research and definitions comprises the first part of this paper. Two studies are then presented here that test the relationship between idiomatic knowledge and second language proficiency. A new definition for idioms proposes that all non-compositional phrases, popularized by usage, that is stored, retrieved, and employed as a single lexical unit. The results from more than 400 participants across two studies indicate that the two constructs are strongly correlated, but that the observable relationship between them is only modest. Additional results from the two studies also indicate that idiomatic knowledge is more strongly correlated with speaking skill than with writing or reading skills. The impacts of this study on existing research are discussed and directions for new research is suggested.

Nearly 13.8 million Hispanics in the United States speak English "less than very well." This has important implications for the field of clinical neuropsychology. Patients who do not speak English fluently are being increasingly referred for neuropsychological services, and many of these individuals are assessed with the aid of language interpreters. However, whether or how the use of an interpreter has an effect on neuropsychological test scores is not known. For lack of a better alternative, it generally is assumed that the test data obtained through an interpreter are a valid indication of the patient's cognitive functioning, but with almost no empirical support, this assumption appears tenuous at best. The effect of an interpreter, in fact, could be substantial, making this issue all the more deserving of rigorous investigation. The primary objective of the current study was to determine whether using an interpreter to conduct neuropsychological testing of monolingual Spanish speakers had an effect on the neuropsychological test scores. Participants included 40 neurologically normal Spanish-speakers with limited English proficiency, ages 18-65 years, (M= 39.65, SD =13.91) who completed a 2-hour battery of verbal and nonverbal neuropsychological tests both with and without an interpreter. The condition of test administration was counterbalanced across participants and test score differences between the two conditions were compared. Results indicated that use of an interpreter significantly affected mean scores for some neuropsychological tests from the verbal modality. Also, variability in test scores generally was higher when an interpreter was used, significantly so for one verbal test. Results of this study contribute to the extant literature concerning the use of interpreters to facilitate neuropsychological testing of individuals with limited English proficiency. Specifically, they indicate that neuropsychologists should avoid interpreter use and refer patients to bilingual clinicians whenever possible. For situations in which this may not be a viable option, neuropsychologists should limit their test batteries to measures that require minimal reliance on the interpreter. Tests that rely almost entirely on interpreter skills for administration and scoring - such as the Vocabulary and Similarities subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - should probably not be used. Larger confidence intervals should be used when interpreting observed scores from interpreter-mediated neuropsychological tests.

The main purpose of this study was to construct different vertical scales based on various combinations of calibration methods and proficiency estimators to investigate the impact different choices may have on these properties of the vertical scales that result: grade-to-grade growth, grade-to-grade variability, and the separation of grade distributions. Calibration methods investigated were concurrent calibration, separate calibration, and fixed a, b, and c item parameters for common items with simple prior updates (FSPU). Proficiency estimators investigated were Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE) with pattern scores, Expected A Posteriori (EAP) with pattern scores, pseudo-MLE with summed scores, pseudo-EAP with summed scores, and Quadrature Distribution (QD). The study used datasets from the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) in the Vocabulary, Reading Comprehension (RC), Math Problem Solving and Data Interpretation (MPD), and Science tests for grades 3 through 8. For each of the research questions, the following conclusions were drawn from the study. With respect to the comparisons of three calibration methods, for the RC and Science tests, concurrent calibration, compared to FSPU and separate calibration, showed less growth and more slowly decreasing growth in the lower grades, less decrease in variability over grades, and less separation in the lower grades in terms of horizontal distances. For the Vocabulary and MPD tests, differences in both grade-to-grade growth and in the separation of grade distributions were trivial. With respect to the comparisons of five proficiency estimators, for all content areas, the trend of pseudo-MLE ≥ MLE > QD > EAP ≥ pseudo-EAP was found in within-grade SDs, and the trend of pseudo-EAP ≥ EAP > QD > MLE ≥ pseudo-MLE was found in the effect sizes. However, the degree of decrease in variability over grades was similar across proficiency estimators. With respect to the comparisons of the four content areas, for the Vocabulary and MPD tests compared to the RC and Science tests, growth was less, but somewhat steady, and the decrease in variability over grades was less. For separation of grade distributions, it was found that the large growth suggested by larger mean differences for the RC and Science tests was reduced through the use of effect sizes to standardize the differences.

This study was initiated as a result of the appearance of a number of articles and commentaries in the academic press which intimate that the English language levels of many overseas students studying in Australia are not sufficient to meet the demands of their academic programs. A preliminary investigation into the standards set by one university revealed that there was no statement, policy or, public document describing an appropriate level of language use; and that the university concerned defined language proficiency entirely in terms of bands, scores or grades provided by external testing organisations.Commencing with the assumption that there is an entry level of English language competence, below which students have little chance of success in their studies (at least, within the accepted timeframe), this qualitative case study into one tertiary institution utilises a number of data collection strategies in order to develop a description or definition of a 'gatekeeper' level of English competence. It then compares the findings with the criteria for assessment and grading used by the two most widely available English language tests, TOEFL and IELTS.The first chapter introduces the background to the study. The second chapter outlines the underlying philosophical, social and linguistic framework within which the study was devised, in the context of the literature which informed it. The following chapter presents a justification for the selected research methods and data collection strategies. In the fourth and fifth chapters, the results demonstrate that interpretations of tertiary entry-level language proficiency vary, leading to confusion and an absence of strategic direction; it is further suggested that an appropriate level of language proficiency for tertiary entry cannot be defined without taking into account the prevailing social, political and educational ++ / environment. Recommendations are put forward for the development of an institutional-level framework in which it might be possible to make judgements about the desired levels of language proficiency and improve on existing procedures for their evaluation.This study aims to bring together a number of different strands of research into language and tertiary education such as definitions of language proficiency, language testing and literacy issues, and demonstrate their interconnectivity. As a result, it presents a broad overview (within the overarching discipline) rather than focusing on a single area in depth. Although as a site case study this research does not claim generalisability, it is hoped that- its findings might be useful for other institutions as a basis for their own research.