Research has consistently demonstrated that exposure to nature, as opposed to urban environments, can be beneficial to health and wellbeing. Among natural landscapes, aquatic (blue space) scenes are among the most preferred and psychologically restorative. Since such landscapes face an increasing range of demands, there is a need to understand how their restorative qualities arise and might be preserved, both in terms of the content of a scene and the psychological processes involved in its interpretation. This thesis examines the cognitive impact of placing artificial (human-made) objects in natural landscapes with and without water. It reports new findings regarding the importance of specific scene content for the restorative potential of blue space. The research also explores some of the underlying psychological processes, addressing novel questions about implicit (subconscious) attitudes towards natural landscapes. It compares implicit and explicit attitudes for the first time in this context. In four studies, methods from social and experimental psychology were used to investigate attitudes towards blue and green space with and without artificial objects. To examine the issues of both artificial objects and implicit attitudes, Study 1 used the Affect Misattribution Procedure (which measures implicit attitudes towards images) to assess whether implicit affect (subconscious positive or negative emotion) differed when the same natural scene was viewed with and without artificial objects. Results showed that introducing objects into natural scenes had a negative impact on implicit affect, particularly when the scene contained water. In order to be able to compare implicit and explicit attitudes, Study 2 examined explicit affective reactions to the images from Study 1 using questions adapted from the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (a measure of the restorative potential of environments). Blue space scenes were rated more highly than green space scenes on all components except aesthetics. The presence of artificial objects resulted in lower ratings on all measures for both blue and green scenes. Study 3 was motivated by an indication in the results from Study 1 that implicit attitudes towards blue and green space may differ. The Affect Misattribution Procedure was used to investigate this for natural landscapes without artificial objects. The study also examined whether implicit attitudes differ according to the type of blue or green environment. Viewing blue space scenes resulted in more positive implicit affect than green space, with sea views generating the most positive implicit affect of all. Following the discovery that artificial objects had a more negative impact on implicit attitudes to blue space than green space, Study 4 tested the possibility that this could be due to such objects being more disruptive to the conceptual coherence of aquatic scenes. The conceptual-semantic congruence of artificial objects was assessed using a lexical decision task, in which participants reacted to object words superimposed on scenes. Results did not support the hypothesis that artificial objects are less congruent in blue space than green space. Overall, the studies provide evidence that placing artificial objects in natural landscapes, particularly aquatic landscapes, adversely affects both implicit and explicit attitudes towards the scenes and may reduce their restorative potential. By successfully combining methods from social and experimental psychology, this research validates novel ways of formulating and addressing questions about why some environments have a more positive psychological impact than others. The new results reported here are not easily explained by current restorative theory, therefore might contribute to refining the theoretical framework within which restorative environments are studied.

<div>Theorists posit that despite the well-known benefits of feeling grateful, the adoption of a grateful perspective is not always easy and the occurrence of a gratitude-worthy event is not always readily salient. Indeed, to experience a sense of gratitude may partly require that people actively regulate their cognitive and attentional resources to notice, appreciate, and subsequently respond to a gratitude event. Drawing from Dweck et al.’s (1995) implicit theories framework, I examined whether implicit beliefs concerning the development of various attributes/characteristics differentially influences people’s feelings of gratitude. Implicit theories framework stipulates that people adopt one of two learning perspectives – namely, an entity or incremental perspective. Those with an incremental perspective believe that certain characteristics (e.g., emotions, attributes) are not fixed, but are dynamic and changeable, and that their ability in a certain area can be improved, and that the associated outcomes are linked to their own diligence and labor. By comparison, people with an entity perspective believe certain characteristics are static and cannot be easily changed, and that the outcomes associated with a particular attribute are generally decoupled from their own labors. I reasoned that because incremental (vs. entity) theorists are confident that they can actively regulate their behavior to experience a desired emotional state, they should also believe that they can regulate their feelings of gratitude. In doing so, incrementals (vs. entity) should be more likely to expend cognitive and attentional resources to notice and attend to a salient gratitude event, capitalizing on opportunities to practice cultivating a grateful perspective. With the current studies, I used correlational, longitudinal, and experimental methods to examine both the fundamental association between implicit gratitude beliefs and gratitude, and whether the effect of implicit gratitude beliefs (i.e., incremental vs. entity) on feelings of gratitude differ as a function of gratitude event salience. I hypothesized that compared to entity theorists, incremental theorists should be more sensitive and attentive to a salient (vs. less salient) gratitude event, and as a result, incrementals (vs. entities) should exhibit higher levels of gratefulness/gratitude. The results across six studies provided reliably consistent evidence in support of the key hypotheses. Gratitude was positively associated with an incremental perspective and negatively associated with an entity perspective; when the gratitude event was salient (vs. less salient) incrementals were more attentive to the opportunity, and their level of gratitude was systematically higher compared to those with an entity perspective, and across the salience conditions, the difference between incrementals’ and entities’ gratitude levels was also partially explained by gratitude motivation and increased attentiveness to the gratitude event.</div>

<div>While research links the presence of meaning in life to better psychological well-being, the relationship between the search for meaning and psychological well-being is less clear. The search for meaning is generally thought to be psychologically distressing, but there is evidence that this process is moderated by the presence of meaning in life. Because the search for meaning in life can be considered a goal pursuit, goal-related personality traits may also moderate the relationship between the search for meaning and psychological well-being. The first aim of this</div><div>cross-sectional study was to replicate the moderating effect of the presence of meaning on the relationship between the search for meaning and psychological well-being in a sample of undergraduates (N = 246). The second aim was to examine the potential moderating effects of hope and optimism on these relationships. As an exploratory third aim, this study examined whether there was a unique combination of the presence of meaning, the search for meaning, and hope or optimism that differentially predicted psychological well-being. Results suggest that optimism and the presence of meaning, but not hope, are significant moderators of the relationship between the search for meaning and psychological well-being. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.</div>

<div>There is evidence that after a person chooses between two items, the chosen item is more memorable than the unchosen alternative. This is known as the chosen-item effect (Coverdale & Nairne, 2019). We frequently make choices, such as which restaurant to visit for dinner, or which brand of shampoo to buy, and what we choose in these situations can influence what we remember. In the field of consumer behavior, it is believed that memory for brand names and products influences consumer purchasing behaviors. As such, we were interested in investigating whether the chosen-item effect could be extended to memory for brands and product names. If choosing a brand name or product makes it more memorable, then companies can apply the chosen-item effect to improve an item’s memorability and potentially increase sales of that item. In three experiments we investigated whether the chosen-item effect can be extended to memory for products (Experiment 1) and brand names (Experiment 2 & 4b) and found a mnemonic benefit for items that were chosen over those that were not chosen.</div><div>In addition to the relationship between choice and memory, there is also a relationship between choice and value. We hypothesized that people would be willing to pay more for items that they have previously chosen, in addition to having better memory for them. We conducted a second set of experiments (Experiments 3 & 4a) to investigate whether the chosen-item effect extends beyond memory to value. We found that items that have previously been chosen were not perceived as being more valuable than those that were not chosen. This finding has theoretical implications for research on the mechanism(s) responsible for the chosen-item effect.</div>

<p> </p> <p>Though literature on the influence and efficacy of service dogs as a complementary and integrative health intervention option for a variety of needs (e.g., medical, mobility, psychiatric) continues to emerge, a focus on how service dogs are integrated into the everyday lives of their handlers remains understudied. This dissertation offers new insights to this previously understudied area by first comparing the expectations versus lived experiences of veteran service dog handlers with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and then focusing in on the influence of service dogs beyond the handler, looking at the influence of service dogs on spouses, family members and caregivers. Using a rigorous multi-modal approach, both qualitative and quantitative insights emerge regarding the integration of a service dog for the handler and their families. Findings suggest that understanding the similarities and differences between expectations and experiences may help to inform practitioners and interested recipients about the service dog intervention and help to set realistic expectations about the integration process. Additionally, in populations of psychiatric assistance dogs for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and in populations of mobility and medical alert assistance dogs, findings suggest that the benefits and challenges of the intervention reach beyond the service dog recipient and handler, extending to affect the wellbeing of their families and caregivers. Researchers and practitioners should work together to develop programs that integrate these findings to provide family-focused educational interventions where both positive and negative experiences are shared alongside strategies to overcome the challenges associated with integrating a service dog into a home prior to pairing. Providing this opportunity enables setting realistic expectations for this complementary and integrative intervention option which in turn may affect its efficacy and success throughout and beyond the integration process. </p>

<p>  </p> <p>Individual differences in cognitive effort-based decision-making can reveal the variety of decision strategies used in action valuations. For example, factors such as how challenging an action is or how much reward can be gained are often considered when weighing how valuable an action is. Experiment 1 considers task preferences offered at different demand levels (i.e., the degree of challenge) to determine whether decision-making strategies are related primarily to 1) demand levels, 2) individual capability, or 3) task components. Results suggest that participants’ decisions were primarily driven by task options rather than their performance. Experiment 2 then compares task preferences in different incentive-related conditions. While the majority of decisions were in the predicted direction (favoring lower demand levels and higher monetary amounts), there were individual differences that suggested valuations of both task options as well as incentive conditions. The results of these experiments suggest individuals use various decision strategies involving factors that may have been overlooked in past research. These findings challenge the assumption that task preferences are primarily related to how challenging an action is and instead suggest that preferences may be highly susceptible to experimental design factors as well as factors intrinsic to the individual.</p>

<p>While literature on sexual minority issues is limited, there is evidence supporting poor retention rate among lesbian, gay, and bisexual students (LGB) studying science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). STEM fields often have heterosexist environments that present unique barriers to LGB individuals, though, more must be done to understand factors that deter sexual minorities from entering and remaining in the field. I aim to contribute to the scarce LGB scholarship by examining the STEM climate and exploring factors related to persistence.</p><p> This dissertation is composed of two independent articles that each investigate the issue of underrepresentation of LGB individuals in STEM fields. The first article analyzes existing literature and calls on counseling psychologists to address the problem through using queer theory. I identify various factors that make sexual minorities a difficult population to research, note the additional challenges heterosexism creates for LGB individuals, and recommend counseling psychologists use queer theory to research the systems within STEM. I conclude with recommendations for clinicians and universities.</p> The second article includes an empirical study examining factors related to poor persistence in STEM among LGB undergraduates. Using a mediation model, I hypothesized burnout and the imposter phenomenon would mediate the relationships between stereotype threat and STEM identity, as well as the relationship between STEM identity and persistence. Results indicated stereotype threat was a significant positive predictor of burnout and imposter phenomenon, while STEM identity was a significant predictor of persistence. Results also suggested the effect of stereotype threat on STEM identity is explained better using burnout and imposter phenomenon.

<p>As more organizations adopt varying work arrangements (e.g., remote, in-person work), it is increasingly important to understand factors that associate with employee’s job satisfaction under different work contexts. Previous studies, based almost entirely on in-person work contexts, have mixed findings on whether certain personality traits relate to job satisfaction. The current meta-analysis investigates the potential moderating role of work context on the relation between personality and job satisfaction. Specifically, I examine how personality traits are associated with job satisfaction differently under remote and in-person work contexts. I first compiled an integrated definition of remote work and identified the unique characteristics that contrast remote from in-person work contexts. Drawing from interactionist theories, I then highlighted how the characteristics of work context could moderate the relation between the Big Five personality traits and job satisfaction. I conducted a meta-analysis, quantitatively summarizing findings from 246 studies (<em>N</em> = 260,492). Results suggested that all five Big Five personality traits are significantly related to job satisfaction, however work context did not moderate the relation. Overall, findings from the current study suggest that the personality-job satisfaction relation is statistically significant and robust across contextual differences.</p>

<p>  </p> <p>Post-9/11 military service have been marked by a surge in large-scale combat deployments, characterized by deployments that are longer, with shorter periods of ‘dwell time’, and with a high reliance on the reserve component. Many service members and veterans (SMV) demonstrated resilience during this era by adapting successfully to these demands, meanwhile others experienced difficulty coping with stress and deployment-related exposures at some point. Limitations in existing research—including observations from single time points without the benefit of prospective data—complicates the understanding of the impact of military experience, as an early adult turning point, on well-being. The overarching goal of this study is to contribute to the literature assessing the impact of military service on depression trajectories across the transition into adulthood and into mid-life. Specific goals include informing our understanding of 1) the features of depression trajectories from adolescence to middle adulthood, i.e., from pre- to post-military life among those entering the military in young adulthood, compared to their civilian peers; 2) the importance of sociodemographic factors—including characteristics in the family of origin and indicators of social identity—in shaping depression trajectories and the extent to which their effects vary by SMV or civilian roles, and (3) the impact of pre-existing (childhood) risk and resilience factors on depression trajectories and whether their impact varies by SMV or civilian role. Results found that SMVs had lower depression symptoms prior to and at the time of enlistment, relative to civilians, before increasing later in life. Differences between civilians’ and SMVs’ depression trajectories narrowed after adjusting for sociodemographic factors, although SMVs had lower levels of depression than civilians from their 20s into their early 30s. Childhood risk and resilience factors significantly explained variance above and beyond sociodemographic factors for both SMVs and civilians across configurations (i.e., unique and cumulative models), with resilience factors in the family domain yielding particularly large effects with depression trajectories for both SMVs and civilians. Collectively these findings point to the potential for military service to function as a social determinant of health, the family domain as a key target for prevention and intervention, the continued relevance of resilience factors in the face of risk, and the need for the continued study of risk and resilience throughout the life course. </p>

<p dir="ltr">In the context of reinforcement learning, extensive research has shown how reinforcement learning was facilitated by the estimation of uncertainty to improve the ability to make decisions. However, the constraints imposed by the limited observation of the process of forming environment representation have seldom been a subject of discussion. Thus, the study intended to demonstrate that when incorporating a limited memory into uncertainty estimation, individuals potentially misestimate outcomes and environmental statistics. The study included a computational model that included the process of active working memory and lateral inhibition in working memory (WM) to describe how the relevant information was chosen and stored to form estimations of uncertainty in forming outcome expectations. The active working memory maintained relevant information not just by the recent memory, but also with utility. With the relevant information stored in WM, the model was able to estimate expected uncertainty and perceived volatility and detect contextual changes or dynamics in the outcome structure. Two experiments to investigate limitations in information availability and uncertainty estimation were carried out. The first experiment investigated the impact of cognitive loading on the reliance on memories to form outcome estimation. The findings revealed that introducing cognitive loading diminished the reliance on memory for uncertainty estimations and lowered the expected uncertainty, leading to an increased perception of environmental volatility. The second experiment investigated the ability to detect changes in outcome noise under different conditions of outcome exposure. The study found differences in the mechanisms used for detecting environmental changes in various conditions. Through the experiments and model fitting, the study showed that the misestimation of uncertainties was reliant on individual experiences and relevant information stored in WM under a limited capacity.</p>