Objective: Variation in dental arch shape and arch relations from the primary to the permanent dentition were studied in an untreated longitudinal sample from the Iowa Fluoride Study and Growth Study data (55 females and 63 males). Methods: 3D coordinate data from 68 landmarks located on maxillary, mandibular, and occlusal dental cast scans from ages 5, 9, and 13 were submitted to a Procrustes fit prior to a Principal Component (PC) analysis to capture symmetric and asymmetric aspects of arch shape variation. Covariance pattern models were used to determine longitudinal arch shape changes from the primary to the permanent dentition and to correlate these changes with Angle class molar classification. Results: The first 3 principal components capture 52-78% of the variation in arch shape. PC1 explains 30-44% of the variance and captures changes in overall dentoalveolar height. PC2 explains 14-22% and shows mainly variation in dentoalveolar height and width at the canines. Lastly, PC3 explains 8-12% and captures overall arch width and perimeter differences and changes in anteroposterior arch relations. Results on symmetric shape variation for the occlusal data set captured significant differences (p < 0.0001) in morphology for PC2 and PC3. For PC2, initial morphology in the deciduous dentition for an individual classified as Class II was significantly different than a Class I individual. Initial shape characteristics for the Class II features stepped down maxillary incisors and an increased curve of Spee with deep overbite. For PC3, the initial morphology for both the distocclusion and Class II individuals demonstrated characteristics such as stepped up maxillary incisors and increased overjet relative to their flush terminal plane and Class I counterparts. The rate of arch shape changes at which the distal step group transitions to the mixed dentition was also significantly different from the flush terminal plane sample. Conclusions: Initial findings summarize the main aspects of arch shape variation throughout 3 dentition stages. The covariance pattern models estimated individual trajectories and dynamics of arch shape changes from the primary to the permanent dentition and correlated these changes with Angle molar classification. In the symmetric dataset, significant shape characteristic differences of both initial starting morphology and change in shape over time were discovered for two occlusal phenotypes highlighting differences primarily in the vertical and anteroposterior dimensions. The results found in the present study provide an excellent foundation for describing and identifying dental arch shape differences in the primary dentition that can aid in earlier detection, diagnosis, and treatment of malocclusion, or at a minimum warrant closer observation by the clinician.

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This project examines the rhetorical functionality of metaphors created and used by victims of Nazi terror during the Holocaust. Exploring the link between knowledge, thought and language, along with an examination of metaphors used by Nazi victims, leads to the definition that metaphor is a vital tool creator of meaning, not merely "ornamental." The project first aims to stress the importance of grounding theories that highlight the strong relationship between metaphors and the culture they develop in. By defining metaphor as a trope possible of not only describing, but also shaping the reality of its users, I argue that studying metaphors used by victims in the camps can reveal how they either retained or gained a certain degree agency through the performative use of language. I claim that victims created and used language to their advantage in a way that enabled their survival. Through this lens, victim power and agency can be evaluated in terms of language from a specifically rhetorical theory that stresses the always-active language user. The research is a rhetorical-textual analysis of the discourse of the Holocaust through an examination of metaphors used by the victims and collected from survivor testimonies found in the Voice/Vision Holocaust Survivor Oral History Archive at the University of Michigan-Dearborn. The theoretical perspective from which I approach this archive draws on an interdisciplinary theoretical background that includes the fields of communication, rhetoric, philosophy, linguistics, and social-psychological cognitive research, as well as Holocaust studies. The rhetorical analysis of testimonies in the first phase includes extracting metaphors from Holocaust testimonies, identifying their vehicle terms, and finally, determining their functions in camp discourse. The metaphors are then grouped into five major metaphors that illustrate the functionality of victim-created metaphors and then analyzed in an aim to illustrate both the troping of new metaphors and the counter-troping of Nazi-created metaphors as a perfromative form of gaining agency. The use of these metaphors also functions as agency-gaining devices after the Holocaust among survivors making sense of their past experiences. The subsequent conclusion is that for those seeking to understand the Holocaust, metaphors are an important key necessary for comprehending the horrific realities that survivors are trying to express. The project aims to introduce a new rhetorical lens to uncovering historical events such as the Holocaust. The twentieth century saw other regimes of terror intended to eliminate groups of people creating situations in which lexical voids are created, such as the Bosnian and Rwandan genocides. Since those historical events involve violence in such extreme measures that speakers turn to metaphor in order to both describe their horrific reality and gain agency against their oppressors, it is vital that we identify and define a methodology to uncover truths through metaphor.

The necessity to explore nanoscopic systems is ever increasing in the world of science and technology. This evolving need to study such physically small systems demands new experimental techniques and methodologies. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile technique that can overcome many nanoscopic size limitations. AFM has been utilized in the world of nanotechnology to study physiochemical properties of particles, materials, and biomolecules through characterization of morphology, electrical and mechanical properties, binding interactions, and surface tension, among others. The work discussed herein is largely a report of several novel AFM methodologies that were developed to allow new characterization techniques of individual submicrometer particles and single biomolecular interactions. The effects of atmospheric aerosols on the radiative budget of the earth and climate are largely unknown. For this reason, characterizing the physiochemical properties of aerosols is vital. Since the particles that have relatively long lifetimes in the atmosphere are smaller than one micrometer in size, high resolution microscopy techniques are required to study them. AFM is a suitable technique for single particle studies because it has nanometer spatial resolution, can perform experiments under ambient pressure and variable relative humidity and temperature. These advantages were utilized here and AFM was used to study morphology, organic volume fraction, water uptake, and surface tension of nascent sea spray aerosol (SSA) particles as well as laboratory generated aerosols composed of relevant chemical model systems. The morphology of SSA was found, often times, to be composed of core-shell structure. With complementary microscopy techniques, the composition of the core and the shell was found to be inorganic and organic in nature, respectively. Novel methodology to measure water uptake and surface tension of single substrate deposited particles with AFM was established using chemical model systems. Furthermore, these methodologies were employed on nascent chemically complex SSA particles collected from a biologically active oceanic waveflume experiment. Finally, phase imaging was used to measure organic volume fraction on a single particle basis and was correlated with biological activity. Overall, this suite of single (submicrometer) particle AFM analysis techniques have been established, allowing future systematic studies of increasing complexity aimed at bridging the gap between the simplicity of laboratory generated particles and the complexity of nature. Another nanotechnology topic of interest is studying single biomolecular interactions. Virtually every biological process involves some amount of minute forces that are required for the biomolecular system to function properly. For example, there are picoNewton forces associated with enzymatic motions that are important for enzyme catalysis. The AFM studies reported here use a model enzyme/drug system to measure the forces associated with single molecule adhesion events. Escherichia Dihydrofolate Reductase (DHFR) is a target of cancer therapeutic studies because it can be inhibited by drugs like methotrexate (MTX) that are structurally similar to the natural folate binder but have much higher binding affinity. One of the obstacles of single molecular recognition force spectroscopy (MRFS) studies is the contribution of non-specific forces that create a source of uncertainty. In this study, DHFR and MTX are bound to the surface and the AFM tip, respectively, using several different linking molecules. These linking molecules included polyethylene glycol (PEG) and double stranded DNA (dsDNA) and the distribution of forces was compared to scenarios were a linker was not employed. We discovered that dsDNA and PEG both allow identification and removal of non-specific interaction forces from specific forces of interest, which increases the accuracy of the measurement compared to directly bound constructs. Traditionally, the linker of choice in the MRFS community is PEG. Here, we introduce dsDNA as a viable linker that offers more rigidity than PEG, which may be desirable in future molecular constructs. The majority of the work and data presented in this dissertation supports the establishment of new AFM methodologies that can be used to better explore single biomolecular interactions and individual submicrometer particles on the nanoscale.

The isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway (IBP) plays an important role in cellular metabolism. Currently there are drugs, including lovastatin and the nitrogenous bisphosphonates risedronate and zoledronate, that are used clinically to lower cholesterol levels and treat bone disease, respectively. These drugs work by inhibition of the upstream enzymes, HMG-CoA reductase and farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FDPS), respectively. The enzyme FDPS catalyzes the formation of farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP), an important intermediate that represents a branch point in the pathway. The post-translational modification known as protein prenylation is mediated by the three prenyltransferase enzymes. Even though compounds like lovastatin, risedronate, and zoledronate indirectly disrupt protein prenylation, they also impair processes downstream from the point of inhibition. Therefore a direct approach would be desirable where downstream enzymes are targeted so that the rest of the cellular processes can continue to function. One such downstream enzyme is geranylgeranyl transferase II (GGTase II). This enzyme and it catalyzes the transfer of two hydrophobic geranylgeranyl chains from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) to Rab proteins, which are essential for intracellular membrane trafficking. Inhibition of GGTase II may be a good therapeutic target for diseases such as multiple myeloma characterized by an over secretion of proteins. A known GGTase II inhibitor is the carboxy phosphonate 3-PEHPC, however millimolar concentrations are necessary to observe cellular effects with this compound. In an effort to develop more potent inhibitors of this enzyme, a family of isoprenoid triazole bisphosphonates was initially prepared by click chemistry, first as a mixture of olefin isomers due to an allylic azide rearrangement. These compounds were tested by our collaborators to determine the compounds’ activity as GGTase II inhibitors. Because some triazole bisphosphonates showed good activity as a mixture of isomers, a family of isoprenoid triazole bisphosphonates as single olefin isomers now has been prepared through the use of epoxy azides to avoid the azide rearrangement. The biological activity of these compounds has been studied and some of these triazole bisphosphonates were found to be potent and selective inhibitors of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGDPS). While the enzyme GGDPS is upstream of the geranylgeranyltransferases, it is still downstream of the pathway’s primary branch point and provides GGPP for Rab geranylgeranylation. Two other families of triazole bisphosphonate analogues, homo- and bishomoisoprenoid triazole bisphosphonates, also have been prepared and tested by our collaborators to explore the compounds’ activity as GGDPS inhibitors, as well as the structure-activity-relationship. Previous research has shown digeranyl bisphosphonate (DGBP) and the bisphosphonate ether C-prenyl-O-geranyl bisphosphonate to be inhibitors of GGDPS. Two C-alkyl-C-homoalkyl DGBP analogues have been synthesized in order to study further the binding of these compounds to GGDPS, and dialkylated triazole bisphosphonates have been prepared to explore the effect of a triazole moiety on the analogue’s ability to inhibit GGDPS. The activity uncovered through these studies encourages further research on inhibitors of GGDPS.

We analyzed detrital zircons in Lower-Middle Pennsylvanian strata collected from seven sandstones in the Forest City Basin and seven sandstones in the Illinois Basin. In these basins, Lower-Middle Pennsylvanian strata unconformably overlie Mississippian and Devonian strata and reflect a renewed influx of detritus after a significant depositional hiatus. In the total combined dataset (n=3,106), U-Pb ages of approximately 66% of zircons match ages interpreted to be derived from the Appalachian region, including Grenville (1.3-1.0 Ga), Pan-African (530-620 Ma and 750 Ma), Taconic (440-490 Ma), Acadian (350-420 Ma), and Alleghenian (330-270 Ma) ages. Subordinate populations of grains consist of Granite-Rhyolite (1300 -1500 Ma), Yavapai and Mazatzal Terrane (1600- 1800 Ma), Penokean and Trans-Hudson orogens (1800-1900 Ma), and Superior Province (>2.0 Ga) ages. Proportions of grains matching Appalachian sources increased in the Illinois Basin from ~46% to ~79% between our stratigraphically lowest and highest samples, respectively. The Forest City Basin exhibited a similar upsection increase in Appalachian derived grains, which increased from ~52% in our stratigraphically lowest sample to ~70% in our stratigraphically highest sample. Proportions of grains from northern sources (the Canadian Shield and Penokean Province) diminished upsection as these source areas and recycled sediments containing associated grains become covered with Appalachian-derived sediments. Overall, these shifts are interpreted to reflect an increased flux of Alleghenian erosional detritus across the Laurentian craton as a result of the overfilling of the Appalachian foreland region. These results supplement our understanding of the stratigraphic and provenance records left by fluvially dominated large-scale sedimentation events that occur during the formation of supercontinents.

Our self and communal identity is important for everyday life. Our identity determines how we act, where we live, who we love, and how we worship. Identity is especially important in a religious context, including the religious community of the Waldensians. Do the present day Waldensians share an identity with their medieval ancestors; how is this identity constructed? I argue that the medieval and modern day Waldensians create a similar cultural and religious identity which is constructed through three specific practices: the commitment to the vita apostolica, medical practices, and education and the perpetuation of a historical narrative. Although these practices have evolved with modernity the summation of the practices form a coherent communal identity across time. In order to demonstrate the shared cultural and religious identity of the Waldensians of the Middle Ages and present day I examined inquisitorial documents, religious tracts, pamphlets, and conducted interviews. I have set these findings in the larger social context of the Middle Ages and Modern Era in order to show that although similarities of practice exist with other groups the summation of the three specific practices especially with the creation and perpetuation of a historical narrative creates a unique communal identity. This is important for future examination of other religious communities and how similar communal identities do not negate uniqueness of the said community. This study also shows that the evolution of practices does not detract from the continuation of communal identity. Thus although the cultural practices of the Waldensians evolved over time the communal identity remained strong and continues to thrive today.

In daily life, individuals participate in multiple social roles. According to sociological theories of the self, the social roles individuals participate in are fundamental to individuals' self-concepts. For example, one's role as a mother, lawyer, volunteer, and student are important aspects of one's overall self-view. Additionally, these role-based identities provide behavioral guidance and have important implications emotions and psychological well-being. However, little is known about how the relationship between the meanings of the various identities an individual participates in impacts identity processes and mental health. Additionally, although identities are thought to be embedded in different social groups (e.g., work, family, and church), and these role-based groups are viewed as essential in identity development and role-performance, little is known about how the structure of social networks impacts identity processes. The purpose of this dissertation is to lay the theoretical scaffolding for a more holistic view of the multiple-identity-self. I highlight four key weaknesses in current treatments of multiple identities. First, the potential impact of the relationship between identity meanings on emotions and interaction is often glossed over or ignored by current research in identity theory. Second, current theoretical treatments of the self-structure do not incorporate the fact that individuals are able to reflect on themselves as a general social object. Third, in the absence of a theory of self-structure that ties identity meanings together, identity theory's ability to make long-term predictions about mental health outcomes is severely limited. Fourth, although one's identities are embedded in multiple social groups, the structure of social relations within and between an individual's social groups is given very little attention in current theory and research. Overall, my findings suggest that 1) participating in social roles that align with an individual's view of themselves "as they truly are" (i.e., core self meanings) is associated with reductions in depression, 2) working parents who participate in occupations that are viewed as incompatible with their parental identity report lower levels of psychological well-being, and 3) the impact of network density is depends on whether or not one belongs to a self-affirming social environment.

1. Introduction Injury is the fifth leading cause of mortality and morbidity among adults in Iowa. Work-related, or occupational injuries, constitute a substantial proportion of the injury burden in the US. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports about 4.9 million occupational injuries annually in the US and over 50,000 injuries in Iowa. The aims of this study were to assess: 1) the burden of work-related injuries using an algorithm based on analysis of the external cause of injury (i.e., E-codes) combined with injury registry variables; 2) the magnitude of disability following an occupational injury by assessing Disability Adjusted Life Years and Discharge to Long Term Care; and 3) the burden of short-term disability one year after discharge from a Level I trauma center. 2. Methods/Approach This research consisted of two observational studies of Iowa cases, ages 18-64, reported to the Iowa State Trauma Registry (STR) from January 1st 2007 to December 31st 2010. A retrospective cohort design was used to assess differences in mortality, length of stays, discharge disposition, disability risk and Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), and their associated risk factors, such as demographic characteristics, nature and severity of injury, pre-hospital and in hospital trauma care (i.e. transport, resuscitation, vascular and airway access, sedative and paralytic drug usage). A prospective follow-up study a cohort of cases discharged from the University of Iowa Resource Trauma Center was used to assess risk factors associated with short-term disabilities one year after discharge. The EuroQol-5 Dimension Questionnaire (EQ-5D) was mailed to the cohort cases, alive one year after discharge, to assess their overall health status and quality of life. The algorithm classified the study population into occupational, “Work-Likely” (WL), and non-work cases. Work-likely was defined based on work-related activities without pay, informal status or self-employed. The registry cases were matched to 2007-2011 death certificates to identify those who died after discharge and to estimate their survival time. Machine learning methods – logistic regression and 10-fold cross validation were used to validate the algorithm. The survival time from injury to death was assessed using Kaplan Meier and Cox regression modeling. The Generalized Linear Modeling, including multinomial regression, was used to analyze the mean length of stay, the risk of discharge to long term care, DALYs and disability risk. 3. Results From 2007 to 2010, there were individuals (ages 18-64) admitted (average 5,614 per year) as trauma cases to hospitals in Iowa. Based on the algorithm, 3,115 (14.0%) were classified as occupational, 847 (3.8%) as WL, and 18,454 (82.2%) were classified as non-work cases. There were notable differences in demographics, farm exposure, and rural residence. The 10-fold cross validation showed a 20% misclassification rate for occupational and 30% for WL. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) was measured at 0.66, which is indicative of poor discriminating effect. Overall, occupational and WL cases had better outcomes than non-work cases; they had lower mean lengths of stay and better survival rates, as detected by Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression models. WL had lower survival rates on the Kaplan Meier estimates but the Cox regression contrast statement didn't find any difference in survival between occupational and WL 30 days and one year after discharge. Multinomial regression showed major differences in the risk of discharge to long-term care (LTC) or acute care compared to discharge home between occupational, WL, and non-work cases WL cases had less risk of being discharged to LTC compared to non-work cases. There were no differences observed between occupational and non-work cases. When stratified by occupational status, the predictors of being discharged to Long term care or acute care were different for occupational, WL and non-work cases. For WL, care in Level I&II , injury type, triage mechanism, first ER systolic blood pressure were no longer good predictors of discharge to LTC compared to occupational or non-work cases. Mean DALYs were lower in the occupational (mean= 4.8; 95% CI: 4.7-4.8) and WL (mean 4.4; 95% CI: 4.4-4.7) cases than the non-work cases (mean= 5.2; 95% CI: 5.1-5.2). However, when all other risk factors were accounted for, the occupational cases had a 10% reduction in mean DALYs, and WL a 20% reduction in DALYs compared to non-work cases. When the disability was assessed separately by occupational status, the risk factors associated with disability were completely different. For WL cases, only injury location and ISS were significantly associated with DALYs. Conversely for occupational and non-work cases, injury type, coma, pre-hospital management (i.e. airway, paralytic drugs), and cause of injury were significantly associated with DALYs. The one-year follow-up questionnaire administered to 156 trauma survivors resulted in 72 (46%) valid responses. Of those who responded, 58 (81%) were occupational and 14 (19%) WL cases. Overall, from the EQ-5Dresults, 46% of the respondents reported a disability. There were no major differences in the prevalence of disability between occupational and WL injury cases. However, occupational injury cases were more likely to receive rehabilitation services. 4. Conclusions This study demonstrated the utility of using trauma registry data in epidemiologic research to study occupational injury using a unique algorithm to include informal or self-employed workers. It identified a neglected group of workers subject to occupational injury and subsequent disability.