The current study examined the differences in perceptions of three types of microaggressions experienced by African Americans and Latino Americans. Additionally, this study addressed how the coping mechanism of confrontation may be perceived depending on the level of the microaggression. Finally, colorblind attitudes were examined as an individual difference variable in predicting responses to microaggressions. The study used a 2 (target ethnicity: African American and Latino American) x 3 (types of microaggression: microassault, microinsult, and microinvalidation) between subjects design. A sample of 304 White participants was obtained via MTurk. Participants first read a vignette showing an interaction between a White supervisor and a subordinate of color (African American or Latino American). After reading the vignette, participants were asked to complete the Microaggression Perception Scale, a course of action scale to assess their perception of what the target should have done after the microaggressive incident, the Color-Blind Racial Attitude Scale (COBRA), and a demographic survey. The data were analyzed using MANOVA and regression analyses and the results indicated five major findings. First, White participants were found to be able to perceive microaggressions as having occurred as they became more blatant (from microinvalidation to microinsult to microassault). Second, there were no significant differences in their perceptions of the types of microaggression between the African American and Latino American targets. However, they perceived microinvalidation when it occurred for the White target more clearly than they did the microinvalidation for the African American target. Third, color-blind racial attitudes were related to White individuals’ perception of microinsults and microassaults, but not microinvalidation, indicating those who identified more strongly with the colorblind racial attitude were less likely to perceive the microaggression as being biased even when the microaggression was blatant. Fourth, participants also recommended that individuals of color should take more drastic action for microassault and less drastic action for microinvalidation. This suggested that the microassaults were perceived as not acceptable behavior and that these behaviors should be reported in writing to upper administration in the organization. Finally, color-blind racial attitudes moderated the relationship between the perceptions of microinvalidations and microassaults, and the course of action to deal with aggression. Implications of the study are further discussed.

Supervision of counseling services is a crucial component to professional counselor development (Bernard & Goodyear, 2009). A common and pervasive threat to cross-cultural interpersonal relationships, such as supervision, is the presence of racial microaggressions (Constantine & Sue, 2007). According to Carter (2007) and Helms, Nicholas, and Green (2012), microaggressions are so damaging, that they may even trigger traumatic responses in recipients. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among racial microaggressions in supervision, the supervisory working alliance, and traumatic symptomatology in supervisees. This study collected survey data from 86 participants who self-identified as racial, ethnic, or cultural minority group members and who were counselors-in-training, professional counselors, or counselor educators. Data collection included responses to demographic questions, the adapted Experiences of Black Supervisors Scale (EBSS adapted; Barnes, 2011), the Trauma Symptom Check-list 40 (TSC-40; Elliot & Briere, 1992), and the Supervisory Working Alliance Inventory – Trainee Version (SWAI-T; Efstation, Patton, & Kardash, 1990). Bivariate correlations revealed significant relationships among all three of the main variables. The SWAI-T full-scale scores had a moderate negative correlation with the EBSS (adapted) full-scale scores (r = -.637, p < .01) and a moderate negative correlation with the TSC-40 full-scale scores (r = -.372, p < .01). The EBSS (adapted) full-scale scores had a moderate positive correlation with the TSC-40 full-scale scores (r = .513, p < .01). Regression analysis yielded a model whereby 40.6% of the variation in the supervisory alliance can be explained by microaggressions in supervision F (1, 48) = 32.752, p < .01. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis determined that the presence of traumatic experiences does not add to the predictive capacity of the model. The results suggest that the presence of racial microaggressions is an important impediment to the supervisory working alliance. Implications, limitations, and future directions were provided.

The purpose of this study was to examine the interrelationships between daily hassle stressors (i.e., racial microaggressions and college hassle stress), racial identity, perceived stress, and depression among Black/African American college students. It was hypothesized that perceived stress would partially mediate the relationships between daily hassle stressors and depression. Racial identity was hypothesized to moderate the relationship between racial microaggressions and perceived stress. Data were analyzed from a sample of 142 Black/African American college students from a medium sized university in the Midwest. Utilizing EQS, a path analysis was conducted to test the hypothesized model. Findings from the analysis revealed that perceived stress partially mediated the relationship between college hassle stress and depression. Findings also revealed that perceived stress fully mediated the relationship between racial microaggressions and depression. Interestingly, a significant negative relationship was found between racial microaggressions and perceived stress. Racial identity was not a significant moderator in this study. Findings are indicative that Black/African American college students experience race-related stress differently than general daily hassles. Implications for future research, clinical interventions, and social justice initiatives are discussed.

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In this thesis I analyse the dynamics of youth, race and rurality by considering the life experiences of young people in relation to race and racism through a small –scale study I have conducted over eight months. The study also investigates the aspirations of eight black and minority ethnic young people living in the Scottish Highlands. The study found that young people’s experiences of racism and racial microaggressions were exacerbated by a ‘conspiracy of silence’ in which institutional actors such as service providers, who are there to support and encourage young people, have knowingly, or inadvertently, contributed to undermining, marginalising and excluding black and minority ethnic young people through misunderstanding or misrecognition of experiences of racialisation in rural areas. I observed how these minority young people engaged in strategies of resistance and resilience as a prevalent response when negotiating racist experiences and racial microaggressions. It was further evident that the deficient practices of institutional actors, such as teachers, youth workers and most service providers play a tangible role in perpetuating racism and racial discrimination in the Highlands. The study recommends that to reduce bias and discrimination against black and minority ethnic pupils requires a range of strategies ranging from enhancing teacher confidence in teaching and addressing different forms of racism, a need for teachers to have training on anti-racist education and pedagogical approaches, recruitment of black and minority ethnic practitioners for different service provision, recognition and promotion of the benefits of multilingualism and opportunities for white majority pupils to have greater exposure to diversity in rural Scotland.

Historically, research on racial microaggressions has focused on adult populations within clinical as well as work environments. The literature is just beginning to examine microaggressions within the K-12 education system and with younger populations. It is important to assess how racial microaggressions are impacting high school students given that research has indicated that this population is experiencing racial injustices. The perpetration of racial microaggressions is the basis for students’ discriminatory experiences within these institutions. This work has recently become even more necessary given that the high school student population is becoming increasingly racially diverse while our teaching population has remained mostly White. The purpose of this study is to investigate how White educators’ White identity development translates to the racial microaggression commission in the classroom setting. This study took place across three public schools within the South United States. This study included five White educators and 25 of their non-White students. The educators were interviewed and a selection of their non-White students were surveyed. This data was then analyzed using Thematic Analysis (TA). TA was utilized to uncover where White educators were in their White identity development and to assess students’ experiences with racial microaggressions. This study explored White identity development using Helms’ (1990, 1995) White Identity Development model. Findings indicated that White educators were at various levels of their White identity development. The educators ranged from those who endorsed colorblind ideologies to those engaged in racial activism. The findings were structured into six overcharging themes: Adherence to Colorblind Attitudes, Initial Response to Emerging Awareness of Racism, Denigration of POC, Intellectual Understanding of Racism, Desire to Achieve a Nonracist Definition of Whiteness, Positive White Racial Identity. The student participants reported diverse experiences within the school setting. The results were organized into two overarching themes: Positive School Experiences and Negative School Experiences. Recommendations were offered for educator preparation programs, ongoing training for educations, as well as larger systemic alterations.

Wellness has been identified as one of the primary goals in the counseling profession (Myers, 1992; Myers & Sweeney, 2005; Roscoe, 2009). Although wellness is one of the main goals of counseling, and there has been a plethora of research on wellness, there is a scarcity of wellness research focused on counselors, and counselors in training (Myers & Sweeney, 2008). Research on racial discrimination and microaggressions in students, as well as faculty in higher education suggests that many colleges and universities are hostile settings for people of color (Bradley & Holcomb-McCoy, 2004; Salazar, 2009; Salazar et al., 2004). Day to day experience with racial microaggressions can be detrimental to the well-being of people of color (Sue, Lin, Torino, Capodilupo, & Rivera, 2009; Troxel et al., 2003). This study utilized qualitative methods to examine the perceived relationship between racial microaggressions and wellness in female graduate students of color. A phenomenological approach (Creswell, 2007; Moustakas, 1994) guided this methodology. Participants included seven African American and one Latina American females who were enrolled in CACREP accredited counselor education doctoral programs in one region of the United States. Participants were interviewed face to face and/or by phone in two rounds of interviews. Interview questions addressed participants’ experiences, their definitions of wellness, and their perceptions of the relationship between wellness and racial microaggressions. Participants discussed seven themes including: program experience, day to day experiences of microaggressions, types of microaggressions, wellness, the impact of microaggressions on wellness, wellness strategies in coping with microaggressions, and program expectations. The primary types of microaggressions experienced were microinsults (n=8) and microinequities (n=7). Microaggressions were found to have an impact on emotional, academic/career, overall, interpersonal/social, physical, psychological, personal, and spiritual components of wellness. Wellness strategies helped to decrease participants (n=4) vulnerability to racial microaggressions. This study provides information which informs counseling programs of the unique experiences and needs of Latina and African American female graduate students, with implications for increasing retention rates and improving the overall quality and wellness of these students.

As the nation's largest and fastest growing marginalized ethnic group, Latina/os play an increasingly crucial role in the economic and social life of the nation, highlighting the need for education systems to re-evaluate and expand their efforts in supporting and retaining this growing population. A number of contextual factors have been identified that influence the college experience and academic persistence of Latina/o students, including campus racial climate, perceptions of university environment, cultural congruity, interpersonal racism, and structural racism. An emerging area of research is racial/ethnic microaggressions (i.e., subtle forms of racism). In the face of these challenges, many Latina/os learn to critically navigate and negotiate the cultural environment of college, drawing on cultural strengths as well as cultural knowledge and skills gained in overcoming previous structural barriers to education. The focus of the present study is on Latina/o students and factors that influence their academic persistence intentions. Structural equation modeling techniques were performed to test a hypothesized structural model of the mechanisms by which racial/ethnic microaggressions, protective factors (i.e., resilience, mentor support, social support from family and friends), and sociopolitical development (i.e., ethnic identity, critical consciousness) influence Latina/o students' intentions to persist in academia. The hypothesized structural model tested indicated a good fit to the data. Study results were consistent with several study hypotheses: (a) the hypothesized structural model provided a good fit to the data; (b) the proposed set of relationships between resilience, mentor support, social support from family and friends, critical consciousness, ethnic identity, and intentions to persist accounted for significant variance in the model; (c) perceptions of university environment was directly related to intentions to persist; (d) protective factors (resilience, mentor support, social support from friends and family), sociopolitical development (ethnic identity and critical consciousness), and perceptions of university environment fully mediated the relationship between racial/ethnic microaggressions and intentions to persist; (e) protective factors mediated the relationship between perceptions of university environment and intentions to persist. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are discussed. / 2015-10-10

The literature on the career development of First-Generation College Students of Color (FGCSC) lacks a focus on the career decision-making difficulties consequently from racial microaggressions, academic self-efficacy, academic stress, and mental well-being at PWIs. Furthermore, there is a lack of empirical studies related to FGCSC help-seeking behaviors for racial microaggressions and the utilization of university counseling and career services on these campuses. The following research questions guided this study: a) What is the relationship between help-seeking attitudes and behaviors and racial microaggressions, academic self-efficacy, academic stress, mental well-being, and career decision-making difficulties among first-generation college students of Color (FGCSC) attending PWIs? b) Can the help-seeking behaviors of (FGCSC) attending PWIs be predicted by age, gender, ethnicity, racial microaggressions, academic self-efficacy and stress, mental well-being, and career decision-making difficulties? FGCSC present distinct personal, social, emotional, academic, and cultural needs. The growth in racial microaggressions and racial insults manifested within PWIs requires an examination into how services are tailored within university counseling and career advising centers to meet these needs. Racial microaggressions can result in stress that negatively influences both mental well-being and career decision making. Thus, career and personal counseling services provided on college campuses should be able to help students combat and cope with these stressors. In addition, these services should provide culturally-informed counseling interventions to help FGCSC determine how skills, values, and interests align with a future job that fits their personality and cultural background. A need for more literature that examines the relationship between these variables will assist university counselors and career centers within predominantly White institutions with interventions for this special group of students. The stressors related to racial microaggressions may result in career decision-making difficulties that contribute to low self-efficacy that increase low retention rates and lack of matriculation. A better understanding of the relationships between racial microaggressions, mental well-being and career decision making can result in the tailoring of counseling and advising services on PWIs. Practitioners employed in counseling centers, advising offices, and career services must have a working knowledge of FGCSC experiences with racial microaggressions at the societal, institutional, interpersonal, and individual levels to deliver effective services.

Thesis advisor: David L. Blustein / Education is often thought of as the great equalizer that is capable of offsetting societal inequities (Holmes & Zajacova, 2014). Elite universities are characterized by the most selective admissions criteria, and attendance at these universities often provides access to the social capital necessary to pursue prestigious careers. Research shows that Black students attending elite universities experience racism while on campus (Torres & Charles, 2004; Warikoo, 2018). Scholars have also found that the experience of racism negatively impacts Black student’s well-being (Neville et al., 2004). However, little is known about what happens when Black students at elite universities graduate and enter the workforce, especially the ways in which they experience racism at work. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to better understand the ways in which experiences of racism at work impact on well-being and work-fulfillment for Black graduates at elite universities and to examine potential factors that may protect against racism. Black graduates of elite universities (N= 1,010) were invited to complete measures that assessed racial microaggressions (Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale), racial identity (Black Racial Identity Attitudes Scale), racism-related coping strategies (Racism-Related Coping Scale) well-being outcomes (Mental Health Inventory and Satisfaction with Life), and work-fulfillment outcomes (Work Engagement and Job Satisfaction). The present study used structural equation modeling and findings were mixed. However, the results revealed that particular experiences of racism at work negatively impact both well-being and work-fulfillment. The results of moderation analyses showed that racial identity may serve as a protective factor against experiences of racism at work for Black graduates of elite universities. Implications for research, practice and policy, as well as study limitations are presented. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.