As nuvens cirrus cobrem uma grande fração das latitudes tropicais e desempenham um papel importante no balanço de radiação da Terra. As propriedades ópticas, altitude, extensão vertical, e cobertura horizontal de nuvens controlam sua forçante radiativa. Além disso, nuvens cirrus tropicais podem influenciar a distribuição vertical do aquecimento radiativo na tropopausa tropical e pesquisas recentes também apontam para um aumento do vapor de água estratosférico ligado principalmente à ocorrência de nuvens cirrus na camada da tropopausa tropical (TTL). Apesar de sua importância, estudos relatando propriedades de nuvens cirrus sobre florestas tropicais como a Amazônia são ainda escassos. A maioria estão baseados em imagens de satélites de órbita polar que não fornecem informações sobre o ciclo diurno, nem sobre a estrutura vertical destas nuvens. Ao mesmo tempo, os estudos com lidar em solo são restritos a poucos estudos de caso, em geral associados a campanhas de campo de curta duração. Este panorama começou a mudar em 2011 com a instalação do sistema lidar do Laboratório de Física Atmosférica do IF-USP próximo à cidade de Manaus, Brasil. Neste trabalho, um conjunto de um ano de dados (de julho de 2011 a junho de 2012) foi utilizado para caracterizar as propriedades macro, microfísicas e ópticas das nuvens cirrus sobre a região amazônica e, posteriormente, calcular o papel que essas nuvens têm no balanço radiativo do planeta. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido um algoritmo automático para detectar as nuvens e para obter as propriedades ópticas, incluindo a correção de múltiplo-espalhamento. As forçantes radiativas foram estimadas com dois modelos diferentes, a partir dos perfis de extinção medido com o lidar e de uma parametrização para estimar o raio efetivo dos cristais de gelo. Nossos resultados mostraram que as nuvens cirrus na alta troposfera foram mais frequentes na Amazônia do que relatado previamente em outras regiões tropicais. A frequência de ocorrência foi de 88 % durante a estação chuvosa e não inferior a 50 % durante a estação seca. O ciclo diurno mostrou um mínimo ao redor do meio-dia local e máximo durante o final da tarde, associado ao ciclo diurno da precipitação. Os valores médios das alturas de topo e base, da espessura e da profundidade óptica da nuvem foram de 14,3 +- 1,9 (desv. pad.) km, 12,9 +- 2,2 km, 1,4 +- 1,1 km e 0,25 +- 0,46, respectivamente. As nuvens cirrus foram encontradas em temperaturas de até -90 degC, com 6 % ocorrendo acima da tropopausa. A distribuição vertical não se mostrou uniforme, e nuvens cirrus finas (0,03 < COD < 0,3) e subvisuais (COD < 0,03) ocorreram mais frequentemente nas proximidades da tropopausa. A razão lidar média foi de 23,3 +- 8,0 sr. Contudo, para as nuvens cirrus subvisuais foi encontrada uma distribuição bimodal com um pico secundário em torno de 44 sr, sugerindo uma composição mista dos cristais de gelo. Não foi encontrada uma dependência da razão lidar com a temperatura da nuvem (altitude), indicando que as nuvens estão verticalmente bem misturadas. A frequência de ocorrência relativa das camadas de nuvens cirrus classificadas como subvisuais foi de 41,6 %, enquanto que 37,8 % foram cirrus finos e 20,5 % de cirrus opacos (COD > 0,3), com uma superposição média de 1,41 +- 0,63 camadas por perfil. Assim, na Amazônia central não ocorre apenas uma alta frequência de nuvens cirrus, mas também uma grande fração de nuvens cirrus subvisuais, o que pode estar contaminando as medidas de fotômetros solares e sensores orbitais. As propriedades medidas foram utilizadas no cálculo da forçante radiativa das nuvens cirrus (CRF) e dos perfis da taxa de aquecimento da atmosfera, em detalhe pelo libRadtran e aproximadamente pelo modelo de Corti e Peter (modelo CP). Com tamanha frequência de ocorrência e residindo tão alto sobre a intocada floresta Amazônica (albedo ~ 0,12), essas nuvens produziram uma CRF líquida no topo da atmosfera e na superfície (TOA e BOA) de +15,3 +- 0,4 e -3,7 +- 0,2 W m-2, respectivamente, muito mais intenso do que o estimado sobre a Europa (0,9 a 1,7 W m-2 no TOA). Cirrus opticamente mais espessas, em geral, apresentaram CRF líquido maior, com CRF instantâneo atingindo valores máximos (mínimos) de 140 (-65) W m-2 para o período noturno (diurno) no TOA. Juntos, os perfis verticais com COD_Coluna > 0,3 foram responsáveis por cerca de 72 % (62 %) do CRF líquido no TOA (BOA), o que significa que uma importante fração do CRF é gerada por cirrus opticamente mais finos (COD_Coluna < 0,3), que são mais difíceis de serem detectados por radares e instrumentos passivos a bordo de satélites. O ciclo diurno da profundidade óptica das nuvens cirrus teve reflexo em sua forçante radiativa. Observamos um ciclo diurno do valor médio da CRF líquida no TOA (BOA), que vaiou entre 1,7 (-23) W m-2 à tarde e 47 (3,1) W m-2 durante a noite. As nuvens cirrus promovem um aquecimento aproximadamente constante de 1,2 K dia-1 no perfil vertical entre 8 e 18 km (dentro da nuvem), mas com valores instantâneos superiores a 10 K dia-1 para porções da nuvem com alto IWC. Acredita-se que esse perfil de aquecimento gerado pelas nuvens cirrus tenha um papel importante na circulação da alta troposfera/baixa estratosfera, gerando um fluxo ascendente médio de massa de ar entre 2 e 15 kg m-2 dia-1 para altitudes entre 13 e 16,5 km, contribuindo para a manutenção da camada de cirrus próximo da tropopausa tropical. / Cirrus clouds cover a large fraction of tropical latitudes and play an important role in the Earth\'s radiation balance. Their optical properties, altitude, vertical extension, and horizontal cover control their radiative effect. In addition, tropical cirrus clouds can influence the vertical distribution of radiative heating near the tropopause, and recent research associate the moistening of the lower stratosphere with the occurrence of cirrus clouds in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL). Despite their importance, studies describing the properties of cirrus clouds over tropical forests like the Amazon are still scarce. Most studies are based on images from polar orbiting satellites, which do not give information on the diurnal cycle nor on the vertical structure of these clouds. At the same time, the studies based on ground-based lidars are restricted to a few case studies, from short-term field campaigns. This panorama started to change in 2011 with the installation of a lidar system from the Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics of IF-USP near the city of Manaus, Brazil. In this study, data from July 2011 to June 2012 was used to characterize the macro, microphysical and optical properties of cirrus clouds over the Amazon region, and then to calculate the role of those clouds in the radiative balance of the planet. An automatic algorithm was developed to detect the cloud layers and to obtain the optical properties, already considering the multiple-scattering correction. Two different models, using as input the measured extinction profiles and a parameterization for the ice crystals effective radius, were used to estimate the cirrus radiative effect. Our results showed that cirrus clouds are more frequent in Amazonia than in other tropical regions. The frequency of occurrence was 88 % during the rainy season and not less than 50 % during the dry season. The diurnal cycle showed a minimum around local noon and a maximum around late afternoon, associated with the diurnal cycle of precipitation. The average values of the top and cloud base heights, thickness, and optical depth were 14.3 +- 1.9 km, 12.9 +- 2.2 km, 1.4 +- 1.1 km, and 0.25 +- 0.46, respectively. Cirrus clouds were found at temperatures as low as -90 degC, with 6 % occurring above the tropopause. The vertical distribution was not uniform, and thin cirrus (0.03 < COD <0.3) and subvisible (COD <0.03) were more frequent in the vicinity of the tropopause. The mean lidar-ratio was 23.3 +- 8.0 sr. However, for the subvisible clouds a bimodal distribution with a secondary peak at about 44 sr was found, suggesting a mixture of ice crystals habits. No dependence of the lidar-ratio with temperature (altitude) was found, suggesting these clouds are well mixed vertically. The relative frequency of occurrence of cirrus layers classified as subvisible was 41.6 %, while 37.8 % were thin cirrus and 20.5 % opaque cirrus (COD > 0.3), with an average overlap of 1.41 +- 0.63 layers per profile. Therefore, in central Amazonia, there is not only a high incidence of cirrus clouds, but also a large fraction of subvisible clouds, which may be contaminating the measurements of sunphotometers and satellite sensors. These measured properties were used for the calculation of the cirrus radiative forcing (CRF) and the heating rate profiles, in detail with libRadtran, and approximately with the model of Corti and Peter (modelo CP). Given their high frequency of occurrence and location at high altitude over the pristine Amazon forest (albedo ~ 0,12), these clouds produced a net CRF at the top and bottom of the atmosphere (TOA and BOA) of +15.3 +- 0.4 and -3.7 +- 0.2 W m-2, respectively. This is greater than what was found over Europe (0.9, to 1.7 W m-2 at TOA). Optically thicker cirrus usually had larger CRF, with instantaneous CRF reaching peak (minimum) values of 140 (-65) W m-2 for the nocturnal (diurnal) period at TOA. The vertical profiles with COD_Column> 0.3 were responsible for about 72 % (62 %) of the net CRF at TOA (BOA), which means that a significant fraction of the cirrus CRF is generated by optically thin cirrus (COD_Column <0.3), which are more difficult to detect by radars and passive instruments on satellites. The diurnal cycle of the cirrus clouds optical depth had influence in its radiative forcing. We observed a diurnal cycle of the mean value of net CRF at TOA (BOA), which ranged from 1.7 (-23) W m-2 in the afternoon to 47 (3.1) W m-2 at night. The heating rates associated with these cirrus clouds were approximately constant, with 1.2 K day-1 from 8 to 18 km (within the cloud), but with instantaneous values that reached values higher than 10 K day-1 for portions with higher IWC. It is believed that this warming profile plays an important role in the circulation of the upper troposphere/low stratosphere, generating an average air mass flux between 2 and 15 kg m-2 day-1 for altitudes between 13 and 16.5 km, a positive feedback for the maintenance of the cirrus layer near the tropical tropopause.

As nuvens cirrus cobrem uma grande fração das latitudes tropicais e desempenham um papel importante no balanço de radiação da Terra. As propriedades ópticas, altitude, extensão vertical, e cobertura horizontal de nuvens controlam sua forçante radiativa. Além disso, nuvens cirrus tropicais podem influenciar a distribuição vertical do aquecimento radiativo na tropopausa tropical e pesquisas recentes também apontam para um aumento do vapor de água estratosférico ligado principalmente à ocorrência de nuvens cirrus na camada da tropopausa tropical (TTL). Apesar de sua importância, estudos relatando propriedades de nuvens cirrus sobre florestas tropicais como a Amazônia são ainda escassos. A maioria estão baseados em imagens de satélites de órbita polar que não fornecem informações sobre o ciclo diurno, nem sobre a estrutura vertical destas nuvens. Ao mesmo tempo, os estudos com lidar em solo são restritos a poucos estudos de caso, em geral associados a campanhas de campo de curta duração. Este panorama começou a mudar em 2011 com a instalação do sistema lidar do Laboratório de Física Atmosférica do IF-USP próximo à cidade de Manaus, Brasil. Neste trabalho, um conjunto de um ano de dados (de julho de 2011 a junho de 2012) foi utilizado para caracterizar as propriedades macro, microfísicas e ópticas das nuvens cirrus sobre a região amazônica e, posteriormente, calcular o papel que essas nuvens têm no balanço radiativo do planeta. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido um algoritmo automático para detectar as nuvens e para obter as propriedades ópticas, incluindo a correção de múltiplo-espalhamento. As forçantes radiativas foram estimadas com dois modelos diferentes, a partir dos perfis de extinção medido com o lidar e de uma parametrização para estimar o raio efetivo dos cristais de gelo. Nossos resultados mostraram que as nuvens cirrus na alta troposfera foram mais frequentes na Amazônia do que relatado previamente em outras regiões tropicais. A frequência de ocorrência foi de 88 % durante a estação chuvosa e não inferior a 50 % durante a estação seca. O ciclo diurno mostrou um mínimo ao redor do meio-dia local e máximo durante o final da tarde, associado ao ciclo diurno da precipitação. Os valores médios das alturas de topo e base, da espessura e da profundidade óptica da nuvem foram de 14,3 +- 1,9 (desv. pad.) km, 12,9 +- 2,2 km, 1,4 +- 1,1 km e 0,25 +- 0,46, respectivamente. As nuvens cirrus foram encontradas em temperaturas de até -90 degC, com 6 % ocorrendo acima da tropopausa. A distribuição vertical não se mostrou uniforme, e nuvens cirrus finas (0,03 < COD < 0,3) e subvisuais (COD < 0,03) ocorreram mais frequentemente nas proximidades da tropopausa. A razão lidar média foi de 23,3 +- 8,0 sr. Contudo, para as nuvens cirrus subvisuais foi encontrada uma distribuição bimodal com um pico secundário em torno de 44 sr, sugerindo uma composição mista dos cristais de gelo. Não foi encontrada uma dependência da razão lidar com a temperatura da nuvem (altitude), indicando que as nuvens estão verticalmente bem misturadas. A frequência de ocorrência relativa das camadas de nuvens cirrus classificadas como subvisuais foi de 41,6 %, enquanto que 37,8 % foram cirrus finos e 20,5 % de cirrus opacos (COD > 0,3), com uma superposição média de 1,41 +- 0,63 camadas por perfil. Assim, na Amazônia central não ocorre apenas uma alta frequência de nuvens cirrus, mas também uma grande fração de nuvens cirrus subvisuais, o que pode estar contaminando as medidas de fotômetros solares e sensores orbitais. As propriedades medidas foram utilizadas no cálculo da forçante radiativa das nuvens cirrus (CRF) e dos perfis da taxa de aquecimento da atmosfera, em detalhe pelo libRadtran e aproximadamente pelo modelo de Corti e Peter (modelo CP). Com tamanha frequência de ocorrência e residindo tão alto sobre a intocada floresta Amazônica (albedo ~ 0,12), essas nuvens produziram uma CRF líquida no topo da atmosfera e na superfície (TOA e BOA) de +15,3 +- 0,4 e -3,7 +- 0,2 W m-2, respectivamente, muito mais intenso do que o estimado sobre a Europa (0,9 a 1,7 W m-2 no TOA). Cirrus opticamente mais espessas, em geral, apresentaram CRF líquido maior, com CRF instantâneo atingindo valores máximos (mínimos) de 140 (-65) W m-2 para o período noturno (diurno) no TOA. Juntos, os perfis verticais com COD_Coluna > 0,3 foram responsáveis por cerca de 72 % (62 %) do CRF líquido no TOA (BOA), o que significa que uma importante fração do CRF é gerada por cirrus opticamente mais finos (COD_Coluna < 0,3), que são mais difíceis de serem detectados por radares e instrumentos passivos a bordo de satélites. O ciclo diurno da profundidade óptica das nuvens cirrus teve reflexo em sua forçante radiativa. Observamos um ciclo diurno do valor médio da CRF líquida no TOA (BOA), que vaiou entre 1,7 (-23) W m-2 à tarde e 47 (3,1) W m-2 durante a noite. As nuvens cirrus promovem um aquecimento aproximadamente constante de 1,2 K dia-1 no perfil vertical entre 8 e 18 km (dentro da nuvem), mas com valores instantâneos superiores a 10 K dia-1 para porções da nuvem com alto IWC. Acredita-se que esse perfil de aquecimento gerado pelas nuvens cirrus tenha um papel importante na circulação da alta troposfera/baixa estratosfera, gerando um fluxo ascendente médio de massa de ar entre 2 e 15 kg m-2 dia-1 para altitudes entre 13 e 16,5 km, contribuindo para a manutenção da camada de cirrus próximo da tropopausa tropical. / Cirrus clouds cover a large fraction of tropical latitudes and play an important role in the Earth\'s radiation balance. Their optical properties, altitude, vertical extension, and horizontal cover control their radiative effect. In addition, tropical cirrus clouds can influence the vertical distribution of radiative heating near the tropopause, and recent research associate the moistening of the lower stratosphere with the occurrence of cirrus clouds in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL). Despite their importance, studies describing the properties of cirrus clouds over tropical forests like the Amazon are still scarce. Most studies are based on images from polar orbiting satellites, which do not give information on the diurnal cycle nor on the vertical structure of these clouds. At the same time, the studies based on ground-based lidars are restricted to a few case studies, from short-term field campaigns. This panorama started to change in 2011 with the installation of a lidar system from the Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics of IF-USP near the city of Manaus, Brazil. In this study, data from July 2011 to June 2012 was used to characterize the macro, microphysical and optical properties of cirrus clouds over the Amazon region, and then to calculate the role of those clouds in the radiative balance of the planet. An automatic algorithm was developed to detect the cloud layers and to obtain the optical properties, already considering the multiple-scattering correction. Two different models, using as input the measured extinction profiles and a parameterization for the ice crystals effective radius, were used to estimate the cirrus radiative effect. Our results showed that cirrus clouds are more frequent in Amazonia than in other tropical regions. The frequency of occurrence was 88 % during the rainy season and not less than 50 % during the dry season. The diurnal cycle showed a minimum around local noon and a maximum around late afternoon, associated with the diurnal cycle of precipitation. The average values of the top and cloud base heights, thickness, and optical depth were 14.3 +- 1.9 km, 12.9 +- 2.2 km, 1.4 +- 1.1 km, and 0.25 +- 0.46, respectively. Cirrus clouds were found at temperatures as low as -90 degC, with 6 % occurring above the tropopause. The vertical distribution was not uniform, and thin cirrus (0.03 < COD <0.3) and subvisible (COD <0.03) were more frequent in the vicinity of the tropopause. The mean lidar-ratio was 23.3 +- 8.0 sr. However, for the subvisible clouds a bimodal distribution with a secondary peak at about 44 sr was found, suggesting a mixture of ice crystals habits. No dependence of the lidar-ratio with temperature (altitude) was found, suggesting these clouds are well mixed vertically. The relative frequency of occurrence of cirrus layers classified as subvisible was 41.6 %, while 37.8 % were thin cirrus and 20.5 % opaque cirrus (COD > 0.3), with an average overlap of 1.41 +- 0.63 layers per profile. Therefore, in central Amazonia, there is not only a high incidence of cirrus clouds, but also a large fraction of subvisible clouds, which may be contaminating the measurements of sunphotometers and satellite sensors. These measured properties were used for the calculation of the cirrus radiative forcing (CRF) and the heating rate profiles, in detail with libRadtran, and approximately with the model of Corti and Peter (modelo CP). Given their high frequency of occurrence and location at high altitude over the pristine Amazon forest (albedo ~ 0,12), these clouds produced a net CRF at the top and bottom of the atmosphere (TOA and BOA) of +15.3 +- 0.4 and -3.7 +- 0.2 W m-2, respectively. This is greater than what was found over Europe (0.9, to 1.7 W m-2 at TOA). Optically thicker cirrus usually had larger CRF, with instantaneous CRF reaching peak (minimum) values of 140 (-65) W m-2 for the nocturnal (diurnal) period at TOA. The vertical profiles with COD_Column> 0.3 were responsible for about 72 % (62 %) of the net CRF at TOA (BOA), which means that a significant fraction of the cirrus CRF is generated by optically thin cirrus (COD_Column <0.3), which are more difficult to detect by radars and passive instruments on satellites. The diurnal cycle of the cirrus clouds optical depth had influence in its radiative forcing. We observed a diurnal cycle of the mean value of net CRF at TOA (BOA), which ranged from 1.7 (-23) W m-2 in the afternoon to 47 (3.1) W m-2 at night. The heating rates associated with these cirrus clouds were approximately constant, with 1.2 K day-1 from 8 to 18 km (within the cloud), but with instantaneous values that reached values higher than 10 K day-1 for portions with higher IWC. It is believed that this warming profile plays an important role in the circulation of the upper troposphere/low stratosphere, generating an average air mass flux between 2 and 15 kg m-2 day-1 for altitudes between 13 and 16.5 km, a positive feedback for the maintenance of the cirrus layer near the tropical tropopause.

Parce que les processus nuageux sont des processus complexes qui opèrent à des échelles spatiales très différentes, l'évolution de l'effet radiatif des nuages (CRE) dans un climat qui se réchauffe est incertaine. Afin de mieux comprendre l'évolution du CRE, il est utile de l'exprimer en fonction de propriétés nuageuses fondamentales et observables. Dans l'infrarouge (LW), l'altitude des nuages est une des propriétés fondamentales, ainsi que leur couverture et leur opacité. Les observations collectées par le lidar spatial CALIOP durant la dernière décennie nous ont permis d'exprimer le CRE LW en fonction de cinq propriétés nuageuses. Nous montrons que le CRE LW dépend linéairement de l'altitude des nuages. Cette linéarité permet de décomposer les variations du CRE LW en contributions dues aux cinq propriétés nuageuses. On observe ainsi que la couverture des nuages opaques a piloté les variations du CRE LW durant la dernière décennie. L'analyse de simulations climatiques suivant la même approche à l'aide d'un simulateur lidar montre que les variations du CRE LW dans le climat actuel sont pilotées par l'altitude des nuages opaques, en désaccord avec les observations. Lorsqu'on étend cette analyse aux rétroactions nuageuses LW simulées dans un climat futur, on remarque que celles-ci sont également pilotées par l'altitude des nuages opaques. Ces résultats suggèrent que les observations par lidar spatial apportent une forte contrainte observationnelle sur les rétroactions nuageuses LW, qui sont l'une des principales sources d'incertitude dans les prévisions d'évolution de la température moyenne globale dues aux activités humaines. / Because cloud processes are complex processes which operate at very different spatial scales, the evolution of the cloud radiative effect (CRE) in a warming climate is uncertain. To improve our understanding of the evolution of the CRE, it is useful to express it as a function of fundamental and observable cloud properties. In the infrared (LW), the altitude of clouds is one of the fundamental properties, together with their cover and opacity. The observations collected by the space-lidar CALIOP during the last decade allowed us to express the LW CRE using five cloud properties. We show that the LW CRE depends linearly on the cloud altitude. This linearity allows to decompose the variations of the LW CRE into contributions due to the five cloud properties. We observe that the cover of the opaque clouds drove the variations of the LW CRE during the last decade. The analysis of climate simulations performing the same approach by means of a lidar simulator shows that the variations of the LW CRE in the current climate are driven by the opaque cloud altitude, in disagreement with the observations. When we extend this analysis to the LW cloud feedback simulated in a future climate, we notice that they are also driven by the opaque cloud altitude. These results suggest that the space-lidar observations bring a strong observational constraint on the LW cloud feedbacks, which are one of the main sources of uncertainty in predicting future global average temperature evolution due to human activities.

The first part of the thesis assesses the aerosol direct radiative effect (ADRE) with a focus on ground-based AERONET and satellite MODIS measurements. The AERONET aerosol climatology is used, in conjunction with surface albedo and cloud products from MODIS, to calculate the ADRE and its normalized form (NADRE) for distinct aerosol regimes. The NADRE is defined as the ADRE normalized by optical depth at 550 nm and is mainly determined by internal aerosol optical properties and geographical parameters. These terms are evaluated for cloud-free and cloudy conditions and for all-mode and fine-mode aerosols. We find that the NADRE of fine-mode aerosol is larger at the TOA but smaller at the surface in comparison to that of all-mode aerosol. Cloudy-sky TOA ADRE with clouds is sensitive to the relative location of aerosols and cloud layer. The high-resolution MODIS land surface albedo is also applied to study the clear-sky ADRE over North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula for summer 2001. TOA ADRE shows the high spatial variability with close similarity to that of surface albedo. The second part of the thesis is to develop a 2-D conceptual model for a climatological convective boundary layer over land as a persistent and distinct component in climate models, where the convective-scale motion is explicitly described by fluid dynamics and thermodynamics while the smaller scale effect is parameterized for a neutral stratification. Our conceptual model reasonably reproduces essential statistics of a convective boundary layer in comparison to large eddy simulations. The major difference is that our model produces a better organized and more constrained spatial distribution with coherent convective cells. The simulations for a climatological convective boundary layer are conducted for a prescribed constant and homogenous surface heat flux and a specified cooling term representing the background large scale thermal balance. The results show the 2-D coherent structures of convective cells with characteristic scales comparable with PBL height; downward maximum velocities being 70-80% of the accompanying upward maxima; vertical profiles of a constant potential temperature and linear decreasing heat fluxes; a square-root increase in the velocity magnitude with increasing surface heat flux.

La présence des particules d’aérosols dans l’atmosphère influencent le bilan radiatif de notre planète et ainsi son équilibre climatique. Selon les différents mécanismes d’émission et processus de transports atmosphériques, les aérosols peuvent être entrainés dans la troposphère libre et ainsi y résider pendant plusieurs semaines. Les contributions optiques et radiatives des aérosols de troposphère libre par rapport à celles de la colonne atmosphérique sont encore mal évaluées du fait de la difficulté d’accès et du manque de mesures sur de longues périodes. Ces travaux de thèse se sont donc appuyés sur deux sites d’altitude présentant des topographies adéquates pour l’analyse des aérosols de troposphère libre : le site ACTRIS/GAW du puy de Dôme (PUY, 1 465 m, France) et le site ACTRIS/GAW de Chacaltaya (CHC, 5 240 m, Bolivie). Ces deux sites disposent d’un large jeu de données in-situ et de télédétection. Les résultats montrent ainsi l’importance de la prise en compte de la structure verticale de l’atmosphère et de l’effet de l’humidité sur les propriétés des aérosols dans l’analyse des mesures. Pour la première fois à notre connaissance, l’utilisation de ces techniques instrumentales depuis la station de mesures météorologiques la plus haute du monde (Chacaltaya) a permis d’établir les propriétés optiques des aérosols dans cette région largement influencée par la ville de La Paz et par les émissions de la forêt amazonienne. Les résultats montrent que l’influence des feux de forêt amazoniens à la fin de la saison sèche peut accroitre les propriétés optiques de l’aérosol à cette altitude d’un facteur de 3,5 en moyenne et celles de la troposphère libre de 28 à 80%. La station est d’ailleurs régulièrement influencée par les conditions de la troposphère libre (30% du temps en journée et 60% la nuit). Ce manuscrit présente également des méthodes originales pour la détermination des contributions optiques et radiatives des aérosols de troposphère libre avec l’utilisation conjointe des mesures in-situ, photométriques et LIDAR. Les résultats établissent ainsi des contributions optiques de la troposphère libre au-dessus du puy de Dôme variant de 20%en hiver à 80% en été en moyenne. L’utilisation du modèle de transfert radiatif SBDART permet d’évaluer les contributions radiatives correspondantes qui oscillent entre 13 et 40% pour les courtes longueurs d’onde, soit des forçages radiatifs de -1 W.m-2 à -10 W.m-2. Les différentes sources d’aérosols en surface influencent donc fortement la composition de la troposphère libre, qu’il est alors nécessaire de prendre en compte dans le bilan radiatif global de notre planète. / Atmospheric aerosols impact the earth radiative budget and its climate. Depending on their emission mechanisms and atmospheric transport processes, aerosols can be injected into the free tropophere where their lifetime is increased to up to several weeks. Optical and radiative properties of free tropospheric aerosols are still poorly known because of the difficulties to access high altitudes over long periods of time. The present work is based on two high altitude sites measurements: the ACTRIS/GAW station of puy de Dôme (PUY, 1 465 m, France) and the ACTRIS/GAW station of Chacaltaya (CHC, 5 240 m, Bolivia). These two sites are equipped with a unique set of both in-situ and remote sensing measurements. Results first show the importance of taking into account the vertical atmospheric structure and the hygroscopic properties of aerosols when combining in situ and remote sensing measurements. Measurements from the highest atmospheric station in the world (Chacaltaya), provide for the first time to our knowledge, the aerosol optical properties from this region of the world, segregated into mixing layer aerosols and free tropospheric aerosols.The site is both influenced by anthropogenic emissions from the nearby city, La Paz and pristine emissions from the Amazonian forest. From these measurements, we observe that biomass burning emissions can increase column aerosol optical properties by an average factor of 3,5 and the free tropospheric aerosol optical properties between 28 and 80%. The station is regularly influenced by free tropospheric conditions (30% of the time during daytime and 60% during nighttime). This manuscript is also presenting original methods for retrieving the optical and radiative aerosol contributions from the free tropospheric layer to the total atmospheric column using a combination of in-situ, photometric and LIDAR measurements. Results show that free tropospheric contributions above puy de Dôme station vary from 20% during winter to 80% during summer. The use of the radiative transfer model SBDART allows to evaluate the corresponding shortwave radiative contributions of free tropospheric aerosols between 13 and 40% (between -1 and -10 W.m-2). Thus, the different surface aerosol emissions influence significantly the free tropospheric composition which is essential for radiative budget determination.

Diese Arbeit betrachtet die Wechselwirkung von solarer Einstrahlung mit Wolken in der Atmosphäre. Diese wird insbesondere repräsentiert durch den Wolkenstrahlungseffekt. Hierbei wurde vor allem auf die Auswirkungen von kleinskaliger Variabilität von Wolken und Wolkenfeldern auf die Genauigkeit des Wolkenstrahlungseffektes am Oberrand der Atmosphäre und am Boden Rücksicht genommen. Mit einer Schliessungsstudie ist der modellierte Wolkenstrahlungseffekt mit Schiffsmessungen verglichen worden. Hierbei wurden die Wolkeneigenschaften in dem Modell durch Schiffs- und Satellitendaten als Eingangsdatensatz beschrieben. Ein Zugewinn in der Genauigkeit konnte durch die kombinierte Nutzung beider Datenquellen erzielt werden, konkret durch die Kombination des Flüssigwasserpfads aus Schiffsmessungen und des effektiven Radius aus Satellitenbeobachtungen. Durch die Schliessungsstudie sind zwei Probleme in der Auflösung kleinskaliger Bewölkung und deren Auswirkung auf abgeleitete Wolkeneigenschaften identifiziert worden, die im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit genauer betrachtet wurden. Ein Vergleich zweier Methoden zur Erkennung des Bedeckungsgrades, jeweils eine vom Boden und eine vom Oberrand der Atmosphäre, hat insgesamt eine gute Übereinstimmung ergeben. Jedoch zeigten sich Abweichungen bei geringer Bedeckung. So wurde bei einem Bedeckungsgrad von ca. 40% in der Hälfte der Fälle den Satellitenbildpunkt als bewölkt klassifiziert. Diese Unsicherheiten in der Klassifikation konnten auf die abgeleitete reflektierte solare Einstrahlung übertragen werden. Für als unbewölkt erkannte, tatsächlich aber bewölkte, Bildpunkte wurde eine mittlere Überschätzung der reflektierte solare Einstrahlung von ca. 30 W/m−2 gefunden. Ebenfalls wurde der Einfluss der zeitlichen Variabilität in der solaren Einstrahlung auf die Bestimmung des Wolkenstrahlungseffektes einer Wolke untersucht. Hierfür wurde ein lineares Modell entwickelt und präsentiert, das die diffuse Einstrahlung mit dem Bedeckungsgrad in Zusammenhang stellt. Das Modell liefert zwei Koeffizienten, die die Variation der diffusen Einstrahlung durch eine Wolke unter der Annahme, dass die beobachtete Wolke den ganzen Himmel bedeckt, beschreiben. Dies ermöglicht einen direkten Vergleich des Wolkenstrahlungseffektes einer beobachteten Wolke mit Modellergebnissen und die Entkopplung von der zeitlich variablen direkten Einstrahlung.

Diese Arbeit betrachtet die Wechselwirkung von solarer Einstrahlung mit Wolken in der Atmosphäre. Diese wird insbesondere repräsentiert durch den Wolkenstrahlungseffekt. Hierbei wurde vor allem auf die Auswirkungen von kleinskaliger Variabilität von Wolken und Wolkenfeldern auf die Genauigkeit des Wolkenstrahlungseffektes am Oberrand der Atmosphäre und am Boden Rücksicht genommen. Mit einer Schliessungsstudie ist der modellierte Wolkenstrahlungseffekt mit Schiffsmessungen verglichen worden. Hierbei wurden die Wolkeneigenschaften in dem Modell durch Schiffs- und Satellitendaten als Eingangsdatensatz beschrieben. Ein Zugewinn in der Genauigkeit konnte durch die kombinierte Nutzung beider Datenquellen erzielt werden, konkret durch die Kombination des Flüssigwasserpfads aus Schiffsmessungen und des effektiven Radius aus Satellitenbeobachtungen. Durch die Schliessungsstudie sind zwei Probleme in der Auflösung kleinskaliger Bewölkung und deren Auswirkung auf abgeleitete Wolkeneigenschaften identifiziert worden, die im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit genauer betrachtet wurden. Ein Vergleich zweier Methoden zur Erkennung des Bedeckungsgrades, jeweils eine vom Boden und eine vom Oberrand der Atmosphäre, hat insgesamt eine gute Übereinstimmung ergeben. Jedoch zeigten sich Abweichungen bei geringer Bedeckung. So wurde bei einem Bedeckungsgrad von ca. 40% in der Hälfte der Fälle den Satellitenbildpunkt als bewölkt klassifiziert. Diese Unsicherheiten in der Klassifikation konnten auf die abgeleitete reflektierte solare Einstrahlung übertragen werden. Für als unbewölkt erkannte, tatsächlich aber bewölkte, Bildpunkte wurde eine mittlere Überschätzung der reflektierte solare Einstrahlung von ca. 30 W/m−2 gefunden. Ebenfalls wurde der Einfluss der zeitlichen Variabilität in der solaren Einstrahlung auf die Bestimmung des Wolkenstrahlungseffektes einer Wolke untersucht. Hierfür wurde ein lineares Modell entwickelt und präsentiert, das die diffuse Einstrahlung mit dem Bedeckungsgrad in Zusammenhang stellt. Das Modell liefert zwei Koeffizienten, die die Variation der diffusen Einstrahlung durch eine Wolke unter der Annahme, dass die beobachtete Wolke den ganzen Himmel bedeckt, beschreiben. Dies ermöglicht einen direkten Vergleich des Wolkenstrahlungseffektes einer beobachteten Wolke mit Modellergebnissen und die Entkopplung von der zeitlich variablen direkten Einstrahlung.