Influenza B viruses are a significant cause of disease and influenza B antigens are present in all human vaccines. Achieving suitable yields of seed viruses is often difficult for vaccine manufacturers. With influenza A viruses increases in yields have been achieved by the preparation of reassortants between a high-yielding donor strain and an epidemic strain. However, reassortment of influenza B viruses for the preparation of seeds has not been usually undertaken due to the lack suitable donor strains. Such an approach, which formed the basis of this thesis, could improve vaccine yields, lower costs and introduce a further element of predictability to vaccine manufacture. Potential donor strains were prepared from B/Lee/40 (B/Lee) by two approaches involving the selection of stable cold- and high- temperature mutants. Initial passaging was undertaken in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chicken embryo kidney (CEK) cultures and later passage in SPF embryonated chicken eggs. Both approaches were successful, although a smaller number of viable progeny could be isolated from plaques obtained at 38„aC. Potential donor strains, isolated by selection at either 25 or 38„aC and plaque-purified in SPF CEK cultures, were tested for haemagglutinin and infectious titre, in comparison with the original parental strain by three methods, and for differences in antigenicity by cross-haemagglutination-inhibition tests. Potential donor strains selected at temperatures of 25„aC (C25) and 38„aC (H38) produced haemagglutination titres of 320 units/50ƒÝL and infectivities of 8.57 and 8.39 50% egg infectious doses, respectively, when grown in eggs at the permissive temperature (34„aC). Reassorting experiments using the B/Lee-derived potential donor strains C25 and H38 and the epidemic strain, B/Johannesburg/5/99 (B/Johannesburg), showed that the preparation of reassortant progeny with both epidemic strain HA and NA was difficult. Only 1/24 of the resulting reassortants possessed both the HA and NA of the epidemic strain. None of the reassortant progeny produced in reassorting experiments using C25 and H38 and the epidemic strain B/Panama/45/90 (B/Panama) possessed the desired 6:2 gene constellation (i.e. genes for the two surface antigens of the epidemic strain and the remainder from the donor strain). The infectious titre of selected progeny from the reassortment experiments were determined by three methods and compared with their respective epidemic parents. Yields of several influenza B epidemic strains and potential donor strains were measured after growth in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells prepared in serum-containing (SC) and animal- and human-derived protein-free (AHPF) media. Optimal multiplicities of infection were determined for B/Panama, B/Johannesburg and C25 in MDCK cultures grown in SC medium. A series of experiments were then undertaken to determine the maximum virus yields in MDCK cells grown in SC medium, followed by a further experiment using C25, B/Panama, B/Johannesburg, and selected reassortants after preparation in AHPF medium. Cell culture yields from 5/6 viruses grown in MDCK cells prepared in AHPF medium were higher than in cells prepared in SC medium and approached those obtained in eggs.

The ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex of influenza A viruses (IAVs) is responsible for replication and transcription of viral RNA and genome, respectively. Mutations in the RNP genes have been identified to play a role in host adaptations and tissue tropisms of IAVs, and compatibility among these genes has been implicated as an important factor for facilitating reassortment of IAVs. Furthermore, mutations and reassortment can drastically impact the polymerase activities of the RNP complex in vitro. However, the simultaneous role both of these mechanisms play in enhancing or diminishing polymerase activities of divergent IAVs remains opaque, and therefore, a greater understanding of how mutations and reassortment of these genes pose potential pandemic risk. In this project, a minigenome assay was used to quantify polymerase activities of various RNP complexes (i.e., complexes containing mutations, reassortant complexes with genes from divergent IAV subtypes; etc.), and applied to a machine learning model to identify genetic features within the RNP complex that are associated with polymerase activities. Applying diverse genotypic and phenotypic data from IAV RNP complexes to a machine learning model has enhanced our understanding of various mechanisms this complex of proteins uses to facilitate viral replication and evolution of IAV.

Rokshana Parvin Molecular epidemiology and biological properties of avian influenza viruses of subtype H5N1 and H9N2 Institute of Virology Submitted in November 2014 Pages 106, Figures 7, Table 1, References 339, Publications 4 Keywords: Avian Influenza Virus, H5N1, H9N2, Reassortment, Mutation, Replication and Growth kinetics Introduction Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are the major cause of significant disease outbreaks with high morbidity and mortality worldwide in domestic birds resulting in great economic losses. Especially the subtypes of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) H5N1 and low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIV) H9N2 became the most prevalent AIVs in poultry causing regular disease outbreaks in many countries of Asia, the Middle East and Europe and are still ongoing events. Therefore, continues monitoring, surveillance and characterization of the circulating viruses are of high priority. Objectives The current study was designed for three main objectives; i) Molecular epidemiology of the HPAIV H5N1 in migratory birds in Bangladesh, ii) Molecular characterization of the AIV subtype H9N2 and iii) Biological properties of the AIV subtype H9N2. Materials and methods In first the part of the investigations, two HPAIV H5N1 strains were confirmed from 205 pools of fecal surveillance samples in Bangladesh. The two isolated H5N1 viruses were characterized by genome amplification and sequence analysis of the all eight genome segments. In the second part of the investigations, a confirmed AIV H9N2 from a retrospective analysis derived from a poultry farm in Bangladesh was characterized. Furthermore, three AI-H9N2 viruses were isolated and characterized from a commercial broiler and broiler breeder flock with clinical respiratory manifestations in Egypt. Full length genome amplification, cloning, sequencing and comprehensive phylogenetic analyses were performed for all eight genome segments. In the final part of the study, four selected Eurasian lineage H9N2 viruses - three G1 sub-lineages H9N2 and one European wild bird H9N2 virus - were propagated in embryonated chicken eggs (ECE) and Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cell culture systems. The ECE-grown and cell culture-grown viruses were monitored for replication kinetics based on tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50), hemagglutination assay (HA) and quantitative real time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). The cellular morphology after infections was analyzed by immunofluorescence assay and cellular ELISA was performed to screen the sensitivity of the viruses to amantadine. Results The two newly isolated HPAIV H5N1 strains from migratory birds belonged to clade 2.3.2.1 and clustered together with other recently isolated viruses in Bangladesh derived from ducks, chickens, quails and crow. The amino acid sequences were also genetically similar although, some unique amino acid substitutions were observed. These substitutions were not related to the known conserved region of the molecular determinants of the virus. The phylogenetic analyses of the isolated AIV H9N2 from Bangladesh and Egypt revealed their close relationship with their respective contemporary isolates and maintained ancestor relation with A/Quail/HK/G1/1997 confirming that all studied H9N2 belonged to G1 sub-lineage. All six internal gene segments of the Bangladeshi AIV H9N2 showed high sequence homology with the HPAIV subtype H7N3 from Pakistan. In addition, also the PB1 internal gene showed high nucleotide homologies with a recently circulating HPAI-H5N1 virus from Bangladesh. Thus, the Bangladeshi AIV H9N2 is genetically a unique strain which shares internal gene segments with different HPAI viruses and takes part in reassortment events. On the other hand, the internal gene segments of the Egyptian H9N2 viruses were similar to the other members of the G1 sub-lineage with no evidence of reassortment events. In this virus rather point mutations within their respective gene segments are observed. With regard to the biological characterization, the three G1-H9N2 viruses produced comparatively higher titer than the Eurasian wild type-AIV H9N2. Overall, the ECE-grown viruses yielded higher titers than cell culture-grown viruses. Following a single passage in cell culture, individual nucleotide substitutions were noticed in HA, NA and NS gene sequences but none of them are related to the conserved region that can alter virus pathogenesis or virulence. All of the studied H9N2 viruses were sensitive to amantadine. Conclusion The present study demonstrated for the first time the presence of HPAI H5N1 in the wild migratory bird population in Bangladesh and determine as one of the major cause to introduce the new clade of HPAIV H5N1 into the Bangladeshi poultry flocks. The Bangladeshi AIV H9N2 strain has exhibited two independent reassortment events with HPAIV of subtype H7N3 and H5N1.The Egyptian AIV H9N2 strains were limited to regular point mutations which is very common for AIVs. The G1-H9N2 viruses showed a higher replication profile when compared to European wild bird-AIV H9N2. Both the ECE and MDCK cell system allowed efficient replication but the ECE system is considered as the better cultivation system for H9N2 viruses in order to get maximum amounts of virus within a short time period. In this study new strains of AIV H9N2 and H5N1 with significant genetic constitutions were described. Thus, continuous monitoring of the field samples, rapid reporting soon after outbreaks, molecular characterization to confirm the emergence of new reassortant strains and the biological properties to know its impact on the virulence are recommended. / Rokshana Parvin Molekulare Epidemiologie und biologische Charakterisierung von aviären Influenzaviren der Subtypen H5N1 und H9N2 Institut für Virologie Eingereicht im November 2014 Seiten 106, Abbildungen 7, Tabelle 1, Literaturangaben 339 , Publikationen 4 Schlüsselwörter: Aviäres Influenza Virus, H5N1, H9N2, Reassortment, Mutation, Replikation und Wachstumskinetik Einleitung Weltweit kommt es in der Geflügelproduktion durch Infektionen mit aviären Influenzaviren (AIV) zu hohen Morbiditäts- und Mortalitätsraten und damit verbunden zu hohen wirtschaftlichen Verlusten. Zu den bedeutenden AIV in der Geflügelwirtschaft werden die hoch pathogenen aviären Influenzaviren (HPAIV) des Subtyps H5N1 sowie AIV des Subtyps H9N2 gezählt. Letztere besitzen die Charakteristika von niedrigpathogenen aviären Influenzaviren. Durch diese Subtypen kommt es regelmäßig in vielen Ländern in Asien, im Nahen Osten und Europa zu wiederholten Krankheitsgeschehen. Dies bedingt die dringende Notwendigkeit von andauerndem Monitoring, Überwachung und Charakterisierung der zirkulierenden Viren. Ziele der Untersuchungen Die vorliegende Studie soll folgende drei Hauptfragestellungen beantworten: i) Molekulare Epidemiologie des HPAIV H5N1 bei Zugvögeln in Bangladesch, ii) Molekulare Charakterisierung von AIV des Subtyps H9N2 und iii) Biologische Eigenschaften von AIV des Subtyps H9N2. Materialien und Methoden Der erste Teil der Arbeit befasst sich mit zwei HPAIV Stämmen des Subtyps H5N1, welche im Monitoring Programm in Bangladesch von insgesamt 205 gepolten Kotproben, isoliert wurden. Die Charakterisierung der beiden Isolate erfolgte durch Vervielfältigung der acht Genomsegmente und nachfolgende phylogenetische Analysen. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit beschreibt die retrospektive Analyse eines AIV des Subtyps H9N2, welches von einer Geflügelproduktionsanlage in Bangladesch eingesandt wurde. Weiterhin wurden aus einer Geflügelmast- und Legehennenhaltung mit respiratorischer Symptomatik drei AIV des Subtyps H9N2 isoliert und charakterisiert. Auch hier wurde das gesamte Genom amplifiziert, kloniert und nachfolgend phylogenetisch analysiert. Im letzten Teil der Studie wurden vier europäische AIV H9N2 Isolate, von welchen 3 Isolate zur H9N2 Sublinie G1 gehören und ein Isolat von einem Wildvogel selektiert und in embryonierten Hühnereiern (EHE) und auf Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) Zellen passagiert. Mittels 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50), Hämagglutinationstest (HA) und RT-real-time-PCR (qRT-PCR) wurden von diesen so passagierten Viren die Vermehrungskinetik bestimmt. Die Morphologie der infizierten Zellen nach Infektion wurde mittels Immunfluoreszenztest analysiert. Eine Bestimmung der Amantadin Empfindlichkeit dieser Viren erfolgte mit einem ELISA. Ergebnisse Die beiden neuen HPAIV des Subtyps H5N1 von Zugvögeln können in die Clade 2.3.2.1 eingeordnet werden und clustern mit kürzlich aus Enten, Hühnern, Wachteln und Krähen isolierten AIV aus Bangladesch. Eine Verwandtschaft der Viren konnte auch auf Ebene der Aminosäure Sequenz gezeigt werden, obwohl einige einzigartige Aminosäure Austausche nachgewiesen wurden. Diese Austausche zeigen keine Verbindung mit bekannten konservierten Regionen der molekularen Determinanten der Viren. Die phylogenetische Analyse der AIV aus Bangladesch und Ägypten zeigt eine deutliche Verbindung mit den derzeit zirkulierenden AIV auf diesem geographischen Gebiet sowie die Verwandtschaft zu dem Isolat A/Quail/HK/G1/1997. Dies bestätigt, dass die in dieser Studie analysierten AIV zu der Subline G1 gehören. Alle sechs internen Gensegmente des AIV H9N2 aus Bangladesch zeigen eine hohe Sequenz Homologie mit einem HPAIV des Subtyps H7N3 aus Pakistan. Zusätzlich zeigt das interne Gene PB1 eine hohe Homologie auf Nukleinsäureebene zu einem derzeit in Bangladesch zirkulierenden HPAIV des Subtyps H5N1. Somit ist das AIV H9N2 aus Bangladesch als ein einzigartiges Isolat anzusehen, welches durch Reassortierung interne Gensegmente mit hochpathogenen AIV teilt. Im Gegensatz dazu, sind die internen Gene des AIV H9N2 aus Ägypten sehr ähnlich zu anderen Mitgliedern der Sublinie G1, welche keine Hinweise auf Reassorierung zeigen. Nur einzelne Punktmutationen konnten in den entsprechenden Gensegmenten nachgewiesen werden. In Hinblick auf die biologische Charakterisierung, konnte in den drei AIV H9N2 der Sublinie G1 vergleichsweise höhere Titer nachgewiesen werden als in einem europäischen AIV H9N2 Wildtypisolat. Insgesamt zeigten die in EHE passagierten Viren höhere Titer als die MDCK-Zell passagierten Viren. Schon nach einer Passage auf Zellkultur konnten einzelne Nukleotidaustausche in den HA, NA und NS kodierenden Gensegmenten nachgewiesen werden, wobei keine dieser Veränderungen einen Einfluss auf konservierte Regionen haben, die die Pathogenese oder Virulenz der Viren beeinflussen. Alle untersuchten H9N2 Viren sind sensitiv gegenüber Amantadin. Schlussfolgerungen Die vorliegende Studie zeigt erstmalig das Vorkommen von HPAIV H5N1 bei Zugvögeln in Bangladesch, welches als Haupteintragsquelle der neuen HPAIV H5N1 in der dortigen Geflügelhaltung angesehen wird. Das AIV H9N2 aus Bangladesch zeigt zwei unabhängige Reassortierungen mit HPAIV des Subtyps H7N3 und H5N1. Hingegen zeigt das ägyptische AIV H9N2 Punktmutationen, welche sehr typisch für diese Viren sind. Die hier untersuchten AIV H9N2 der Sublinie G1 zeigen im Vergleich zu einem europäischen AIV H9N2 eine höhere Replikationsrate. Eine Replikation der Viren konnte in EHE und MDCK-Zellen gezeigt werden, jedoch wird das EHE als das geeignetere System für die Kultivierung von H9N2 Viren betrachtet, da hier in einer kürzeren Zeitspanne mehr Virus produziert werden kann. Des Weiteren konnten in dieser Studie neue Isolate von AIV des Subtyps H9N2 und H5N1mit einem bedeutenden genetischen Aufbau beschrieben werden. Daher wird ein kontinuierliches Monitoring von Feldproben, unverzügliche Meldung von Ausbruchsgeschehen, die molekulare Charakterisierung zur Dokumentation eventuell auftretender neuer Reassortanten sowie Untersuchungen der biologischer Eigenschaften zur Virulenzbestimmung empfohlen.

Rokshana Parvin Molecular epidemiology and biological properties of avian influenza viruses of subtype H5N1 and H9N2 Institute of Virology Submitted in November 2014 Pages 106, Figures 7, Table 1, References 339, Publications 4 Keywords: Avian Influenza Virus, H5N1, H9N2, Reassortment, Mutation, Replication and Growth kinetics Introduction Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are the major cause of significant disease outbreaks with high morbidity and mortality worldwide in domestic birds resulting in great economic losses. Especially the subtypes of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) H5N1 and low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIV) H9N2 became the most prevalent AIVs in poultry causing regular disease outbreaks in many countries of Asia, the Middle East and Europe and are still ongoing events. Therefore, continues monitoring, surveillance and characterization of the circulating viruses are of high priority. Objectives The current study was designed for three main objectives; i) Molecular epidemiology of the HPAIV H5N1 in migratory birds in Bangladesh, ii) Molecular characterization of the AIV subtype H9N2 and iii) Biological properties of the AIV subtype H9N2. Materials and methods In first the part of the investigations, two HPAIV H5N1 strains were confirmed from 205 pools of fecal surveillance samples in Bangladesh. The two isolated H5N1 viruses were characterized by genome amplification and sequence analysis of the all eight genome segments. In the second part of the investigations, a confirmed AIV H9N2 from a retrospective analysis derived from a poultry farm in Bangladesh was characterized. Furthermore, three AI-H9N2 viruses were isolated and characterized from a commercial broiler and broiler breeder flock with clinical respiratory manifestations in Egypt. Full length genome amplification, cloning, sequencing and comprehensive phylogenetic analyses were performed for all eight genome segments. In the final part of the study, four selected Eurasian lineage H9N2 viruses - three G1 sub-lineages H9N2 and one European wild bird H9N2 virus - were propagated in embryonated chicken eggs (ECE) and Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cell culture systems. The ECE-grown and cell culture-grown viruses were monitored for replication kinetics based on tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50), hemagglutination assay (HA) and quantitative real time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). The cellular morphology after infections was analyzed by immunofluorescence assay and cellular ELISA was performed to screen the sensitivity of the viruses to amantadine. Results The two newly isolated HPAIV H5N1 strains from migratory birds belonged to clade 2.3.2.1 and clustered together with other recently isolated viruses in Bangladesh derived from ducks, chickens, quails and crow. The amino acid sequences were also genetically similar although, some unique amino acid substitutions were observed. These substitutions were not related to the known conserved region of the molecular determinants of the virus. The phylogenetic analyses of the isolated AIV H9N2 from Bangladesh and Egypt revealed their close relationship with their respective contemporary isolates and maintained ancestor relation with A/Quail/HK/G1/1997 confirming that all studied H9N2 belonged to G1 sub-lineage. All six internal gene segments of the Bangladeshi AIV H9N2 showed high sequence homology with the HPAIV subtype H7N3 from Pakistan. In addition, also the PB1 internal gene showed high nucleotide homologies with a recently circulating HPAI-H5N1 virus from Bangladesh. Thus, the Bangladeshi AIV H9N2 is genetically a unique strain which shares internal gene segments with different HPAI viruses and takes part in reassortment events. On the other hand, the internal gene segments of the Egyptian H9N2 viruses were similar to the other members of the G1 sub-lineage with no evidence of reassortment events. In this virus rather point mutations within their respective gene segments are observed. With regard to the biological characterization, the three G1-H9N2 viruses produced comparatively higher titer than the Eurasian wild type-AIV H9N2. Overall, the ECE-grown viruses yielded higher titers than cell culture-grown viruses. Following a single passage in cell culture, individual nucleotide substitutions were noticed in HA, NA and NS gene sequences but none of them are related to the conserved region that can alter virus pathogenesis or virulence. All of the studied H9N2 viruses were sensitive to amantadine. Conclusion The present study demonstrated for the first time the presence of HPAI H5N1 in the wild migratory bird population in Bangladesh and determine as one of the major cause to introduce the new clade of HPAIV H5N1 into the Bangladeshi poultry flocks. The Bangladeshi AIV H9N2 strain has exhibited two independent reassortment events with HPAIV of subtype H7N3 and H5N1.The Egyptian AIV H9N2 strains were limited to regular point mutations which is very common for AIVs. The G1-H9N2 viruses showed a higher replication profile when compared to European wild bird-AIV H9N2. Both the ECE and MDCK cell system allowed efficient replication but the ECE system is considered as the better cultivation system for H9N2 viruses in order to get maximum amounts of virus within a short time period. In this study new strains of AIV H9N2 and H5N1 with significant genetic constitutions were described. Thus, continuous monitoring of the field samples, rapid reporting soon after outbreaks, molecular characterization to confirm the emergence of new reassortant strains and the biological properties to know its impact on the virulence are recommended. / Rokshana Parvin Molekulare Epidemiologie und biologische Charakterisierung von aviären Influenzaviren der Subtypen H5N1 und H9N2 Institut für Virologie Eingereicht im November 2014 Seiten 106, Abbildungen 7, Tabelle 1, Literaturangaben 339 , Publikationen 4 Schlüsselwörter: Aviäres Influenza Virus, H5N1, H9N2, Reassortment, Mutation, Replikation und Wachstumskinetik Einleitung Weltweit kommt es in der Geflügelproduktion durch Infektionen mit aviären Influenzaviren (AIV) zu hohen Morbiditäts- und Mortalitätsraten und damit verbunden zu hohen wirtschaftlichen Verlusten. Zu den bedeutenden AIV in der Geflügelwirtschaft werden die hoch pathogenen aviären Influenzaviren (HPAIV) des Subtyps H5N1 sowie AIV des Subtyps H9N2 gezählt. Letztere besitzen die Charakteristika von niedrigpathogenen aviären Influenzaviren. Durch diese Subtypen kommt es regelmäßig in vielen Ländern in Asien, im Nahen Osten und Europa zu wiederholten Krankheitsgeschehen. Dies bedingt die dringende Notwendigkeit von andauerndem Monitoring, Überwachung und Charakterisierung der zirkulierenden Viren. Ziele der Untersuchungen Die vorliegende Studie soll folgende drei Hauptfragestellungen beantworten: i) Molekulare Epidemiologie des HPAIV H5N1 bei Zugvögeln in Bangladesch, ii) Molekulare Charakterisierung von AIV des Subtyps H9N2 und iii) Biologische Eigenschaften von AIV des Subtyps H9N2. Materialien und Methoden Der erste Teil der Arbeit befasst sich mit zwei HPAIV Stämmen des Subtyps H5N1, welche im Monitoring Programm in Bangladesch von insgesamt 205 gepolten Kotproben, isoliert wurden. Die Charakterisierung der beiden Isolate erfolgte durch Vervielfältigung der acht Genomsegmente und nachfolgende phylogenetische Analysen. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit beschreibt die retrospektive Analyse eines AIV des Subtyps H9N2, welches von einer Geflügelproduktionsanlage in Bangladesch eingesandt wurde. Weiterhin wurden aus einer Geflügelmast- und Legehennenhaltung mit respiratorischer Symptomatik drei AIV des Subtyps H9N2 isoliert und charakterisiert. Auch hier wurde das gesamte Genom amplifiziert, kloniert und nachfolgend phylogenetisch analysiert. Im letzten Teil der Studie wurden vier europäische AIV H9N2 Isolate, von welchen 3 Isolate zur H9N2 Sublinie G1 gehören und ein Isolat von einem Wildvogel selektiert und in embryonierten Hühnereiern (EHE) und auf Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) Zellen passagiert. Mittels 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50), Hämagglutinationstest (HA) und RT-real-time-PCR (qRT-PCR) wurden von diesen so passagierten Viren die Vermehrungskinetik bestimmt. Die Morphologie der infizierten Zellen nach Infektion wurde mittels Immunfluoreszenztest analysiert. Eine Bestimmung der Amantadin Empfindlichkeit dieser Viren erfolgte mit einem ELISA. Ergebnisse Die beiden neuen HPAIV des Subtyps H5N1 von Zugvögeln können in die Clade 2.3.2.1 eingeordnet werden und clustern mit kürzlich aus Enten, Hühnern, Wachteln und Krähen isolierten AIV aus Bangladesch. Eine Verwandtschaft der Viren konnte auch auf Ebene der Aminosäure Sequenz gezeigt werden, obwohl einige einzigartige Aminosäure Austausche nachgewiesen wurden. Diese Austausche zeigen keine Verbindung mit bekannten konservierten Regionen der molekularen Determinanten der Viren. Die phylogenetische Analyse der AIV aus Bangladesch und Ägypten zeigt eine deutliche Verbindung mit den derzeit zirkulierenden AIV auf diesem geographischen Gebiet sowie die Verwandtschaft zu dem Isolat A/Quail/HK/G1/1997. Dies bestätigt, dass die in dieser Studie analysierten AIV zu der Subline G1 gehören. Alle sechs internen Gensegmente des AIV H9N2 aus Bangladesch zeigen eine hohe Sequenz Homologie mit einem HPAIV des Subtyps H7N3 aus Pakistan. Zusätzlich zeigt das interne Gene PB1 eine hohe Homologie auf Nukleinsäureebene zu einem derzeit in Bangladesch zirkulierenden HPAIV des Subtyps H5N1. Somit ist das AIV H9N2 aus Bangladesch als ein einzigartiges Isolat anzusehen, welches durch Reassortierung interne Gensegmente mit hochpathogenen AIV teilt. Im Gegensatz dazu, sind die internen Gene des AIV H9N2 aus Ägypten sehr ähnlich zu anderen Mitgliedern der Sublinie G1, welche keine Hinweise auf Reassorierung zeigen. Nur einzelne Punktmutationen konnten in den entsprechenden Gensegmenten nachgewiesen werden. In Hinblick auf die biologische Charakterisierung, konnte in den drei AIV H9N2 der Sublinie G1 vergleichsweise höhere Titer nachgewiesen werden als in einem europäischen AIV H9N2 Wildtypisolat. Insgesamt zeigten die in EHE passagierten Viren höhere Titer als die MDCK-Zell passagierten Viren. Schon nach einer Passage auf Zellkultur konnten einzelne Nukleotidaustausche in den HA, NA und NS kodierenden Gensegmenten nachgewiesen werden, wobei keine dieser Veränderungen einen Einfluss auf konservierte Regionen haben, die die Pathogenese oder Virulenz der Viren beeinflussen. Alle untersuchten H9N2 Viren sind sensitiv gegenüber Amantadin. Schlussfolgerungen Die vorliegende Studie zeigt erstmalig das Vorkommen von HPAIV H5N1 bei Zugvögeln in Bangladesch, welches als Haupteintragsquelle der neuen HPAIV H5N1 in der dortigen Geflügelhaltung angesehen wird. Das AIV H9N2 aus Bangladesch zeigt zwei unabhängige Reassortierungen mit HPAIV des Subtyps H7N3 und H5N1. Hingegen zeigt das ägyptische AIV H9N2 Punktmutationen, welche sehr typisch für diese Viren sind. Die hier untersuchten AIV H9N2 der Sublinie G1 zeigen im Vergleich zu einem europäischen AIV H9N2 eine höhere Replikationsrate. Eine Replikation der Viren konnte in EHE und MDCK-Zellen gezeigt werden, jedoch wird das EHE als das geeignetere System für die Kultivierung von H9N2 Viren betrachtet, da hier in einer kürzeren Zeitspanne mehr Virus produziert werden kann. Des Weiteren konnten in dieser Studie neue Isolate von AIV des Subtyps H9N2 und H5N1mit einem bedeutenden genetischen Aufbau beschrieben werden. Daher wird ein kontinuierliches Monitoring von Feldproben, unverzügliche Meldung von Ausbruchsgeschehen, die molekulare Charakterisierung zur Dokumentation eventuell auftretender neuer Reassortanten sowie Untersuchungen der biologischer Eigenschaften zur Virulenzbestimmung empfohlen.

La transmission des virus grippaux de type A s’effectue via l’eau, l’air ou les surfaces. Elle implique donc toujours une étape dans l’environnement, durant laquelle les virus sont inactivés plus ou moins rapidement en fonction du sous-type ou de la souche virale analysés. Cependant, à ce jour, les facteurs moléculaires déterminant la stabilité des particules virales en dehors de l’hôte restent largement méconnus. Dans le but d’identifier ces déterminants, nous avons généré différentes combinaisons de réassortiments entre deux virus grippaux de sous-types H1N1 possédant un phénotype de stabilité différent. Les stabilités respectives de ces virus réassortants ont été évaluées dans un environnement-modèle, puis comparées entre elles. Pour cela, nous avons utilisé un système d’analyse en temps réel des cultures cellulaires, permettant de calculer, pour chacun des virus testés, une pente d’inactivation moyenne et, in fine, de mesurer l’influence respective de chacun des segments viraux sur le phénotype de stabilité des virus. D’après nos résultats, le phénotype de stabilité des virus grippaux est majoritairement déterminé par l’hémagglutinine (HA) et la neuraminidase (NA), qui sont les principales glycoprotéines de surface de ces virus. De plus, nous avons identifié des changements d’acides aminés dans la HA et dans la NA, qui ont pour effet une diminution ou une augmentation de la stabilité des particules virales dans l’environnement. Nous avons également montré qu’un virus avec un gène de la HA codons-optimisés, et donc porteur de mutations synonymes, suffit pour augmenter significativement la stabilité des particules virales dans l’environnement. La stabilité de la HA à pH acide, le taux d’expression de la HA dans les cellules infectées, et le nombre de sites de fixation aux ions calcium dans la NA sont modifiés par les mutations décrites dans cette étude, et sont donc des facteurs de stabilité des particules virales. De plus, une analyse en microscopie a permis de montrer que les virus inactivés dans l’environnement peuvent fixer leurs récepteurs cellulaires, mais sont incompétents pour induire l’étape de fusion dans l’endosome nécessaire à l’entrée des virus dans la cellule. Ces deux étapes du cycle viral sont dépendantes de la HA. Dans l’ensemble, nos résultats montrent l’importance de la HA et de la NA des virus grippaux dans la détermination du phénotype de stabilité des virus grippaux dans l’environnement. Par conséquent, la diversité connue des HA et NA dans la nature laisse supposer des variations fréquentes du phénotype de stabilité de ces virus. Leur étude pourrait permettre de mieux décrire l’écologie et l’épidémiologie de ces virus. L’analyse des données épidémiologiques et climatiques des épidémies de grippe saisonnière, sur 5 ans et dans 13 pays, a ainsi révélé une différence de distribution des virus H1N1 et H3N2, en fonction de la température hebdomadaire dans ces pays. La comparaison de la stabilité de ces virus sur des surfaces, à 4 °C et à 20 °C, suggère que la distribution des sous-types viraux au début des épidémies est en partie régulée par leur stabilité en fonction de la température / The transmission of Influenza A viruses (IAV), either airborne in mammals or oro-faecal in aquatic birds, submits viral particle to a wide range of environmental conditions. These environmental conditions modulate IAV survival outside the host, which is also dependent on the viral subtype or strains. To date, the molecular drivers of IAV environmental persistence remain to be identified. In order to identify IAV molecular drivers of the environmental persistence, we generated different reassortant viruses between two H1N1 viruses that do not have the same stability outside the host. To this purpose, we performed survival kinetic and compared the inactivation slope of generated reassortant viruses in our controlledenvironment, using a real time cell analysis system. Our results demonstrate that the hemagglutinin (HA) and the neuraminidase (NA) are the main viral segments driving IAV environmental persistence. In addition, mutations driving viral stability in the environment were identified in the HA and NA amino-acid sequences. We also demonstrated that synonymous mutations introduced in the HA, using a codon-optimization strategy, drive the environmental persistence of IAV. The HA stability at low pH, HA surface expression levels in infected cells and the number of calcium binding sites of the NA were alternately changed by the mutations described in our study, indicating that these are stability determinants of IAV survival outside the host. Then, the sequential events of viral entry were analysed with fluorescence microscopy assays, showing that viral particles being exposed for a long period in saline water at 35°C are still able to bind their cellular receptor whereas the HA-mediated fusion within the endosome is not possible anymore. These two steps of the viral cycle are mainly mediated by the HA protein. Altogether, these result highlight the importance of the HA and the NA proteins, driving the environmental persistence of IAV. Given the known diversity of these two proteins in nature, this arouses interest in studying IAV environmental persistence at a more global scale. Such study could improve our knowledge on IAV ecology and epidemiology. Epidemiologic and climatic data analyse of human seasonal influenza viruses during 5 years and from 13 countries revealed that H1N1 virus and H3N2 virus distribution differs according to the mean weekly temperature in these countries. We then compared the H1N1 virus and H3N2 virus persistence on stainless steel surface at 4 °C and 20 °C, and the preliminary results suggest that IAV seasonal subtypes distribution might be partly regulated by their stability according to the temperature

RNA viruses have the fastest evolutionary rates amongst protein-coding organisms on the planet. Ease of sequencing, advanced techniques of analysis and global health and economic concerns have all contributed to the recognition of RNA viruses as a robust research platform. Phylogenetic methods have been at the forefront of analytical techniques used to understand the dynamics of RNA viruses - during natural circulation in populations and in individual hosts, within epidemics, across species barriers and over billions of years that viruses have been around. Most of the work presented in this thesis employs phylogenetic incongruity arising from reassortment and recombination to gain insights into the genomes and populations of RNA viruses. Chapter 2 explores the selection regimes Ebola virus has experienced following a year of circulation in humans inWest Africa, as well as its recent history. Chapter 3 investigates the extent of recombination in MERS-CoV, a novel human pathogen with an obscure epidemiology, which is suggestive of frequent co-infection of some hosts. Chapter 4, on the other hand, documents a pattern of non-intuitive linkage between some segments of the human-endemic influenza B virus genome and explores its potential to speciate. Chapter 5 builds upon chapter 4 and attempts to describe small-scale reassortment between two segments of influenza B virus and the overall migration patterns of influenza B virus in Scotland. Chapter 6 exploits the independence of segments of influenza D virus, a recently described cattle pathogen, and coalescent theory to disentangle the origins of this virus. This thesis exemplifies the success of modern sequencing methods, which, together with the use of sophisticated analytical techniques, have uncovered a wealth of information hidden away in molecular sequences of RNA viruses. The work presented herein demonstrates how reticulate evolution can be exploited as a reliable, and sometimes indispensable, marker to improve inference of evolutionary forces in RNA viruses.

Influenza A viruses are important pathogens of humans, other mammals and birds. Swine are considered to be the ‘mixing vessel’ for influenza viruses because of their susceptibility to infection with not only swine influenza viruses but also human and avian influenza viruses. After infection of pigs with different influenza viruses, reassortment events between genomic RNA segments and point mutations can take place which can result in novel influenza virus strains capable of causing human pandemics. To combat infections, vaccination is available in many countries for humans, but not typically used in pigs. However, anti-influenza drugs have been used to treat livestock, and mutations conferring drug resistance occur in circulating strains. The mechanisms responsible for the emergence and spread of drug resistant mutations against amantadine and oseltamivir have been studied previously but often gave conflicting results. Therefore, this PhD thesis focused on resolving the mechanisms responsible for this rapid drug resistance spread. In chapter one I examine the extent of reassortment events in swine influenza A viruses by analysing within subtype reassortment and extrapolating the results for the between subtype reassortment. Reassortment is one of the mechanisms that can be responsible for mutations, conferring resistance to drugs, to spread between strains, and thus spread in the host population. The findings of this chapter show that the genomic segments most prone to reassortment code for a polymerase (PB1) and both glycoproteins, within all three subtypes studied. Since particular mutations in the matrix protein (MP) segment cause resistance to amantadine, my study focused on MP compared to other segments and revealed moderate level of reassortment. MP reassorts well with polymerases, both within and between subtype, while nonstructural (NS) is least likely to reassort. Chapter two of this thesis aimed at resolving the origin and spread of the most common drug resistance conferring mutation in swine influenza viruses which causes amantadine resistance. I show first that this mutation occurred in swine influenza viruses and was therefore not transmitted from the recently ancestral avian influenza strains, and second that the prevalence of resistance in swine influenza viruses is due to functional linkage of mutations at other sites and not by direct drug pressure. In chapter three I examine the mechanisms responsible for the rapid rise and spread of oseltamivir resistance in human influenza H1N1 viruses which arose in the absence of drug use. The primary mutation lies in the neuraminidase glycoprotein but because of the close functional interaction I focus on changes in haemagglutinin that occurred in association with resistance. The results showed several mutations in haemagglutinin were associated with resistance suggesting selection acting on haemagglutinin in order to balance the activity of both glycoproteins. Overall these results show the importance of functional linkage between segments as a mechanism for the occurrence of drug resistance conferring mutations, and reassortment as a means of spreading these mutations into newly emerging strains.

No description available.

No presente trabalho, investigamos a filodinâmica de três modelos virais diferentes, utilizando técnicas baseadas em verossimilhança e inferência bayesiana. Dois desses são flavivírus com genoma de RNA fita simples e senso positivo. O terceiro é um bunyavírus com genoma tri-segmentado de RNA fita simples com senso negativo. Estes diferentes modelos permitiram estudar diferentes mecanismos promotores de diversidade viral, reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos (shift) e mutação (drift), que atuam em diferentes granularidades. Descrevemos pela primeira vez o espalhamento geográfico das linhagens de vírus Zika (ZIKV) em um nível continental, assim como ocorrência de recombinação e associação entre padrões de glicosilação e vetores. Para o flavivírus da encefalite transmitida por carrapatos (TBEV), investigamos seu espalhamento e encontramos evidências que corroboram a hipótese de circulação viral restrita a focos na Europa central. As análises sobre o vírus da Febre da Grande Fenda Africana (RVFV) apontaram a ocorrência de reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos e também ajudaram a elucidar sua dispersão do leste do continente africano para o oeste, encontrando-se diversas introduções no Senegal e Mauritânia. Aparentemente, este vírus teve a entrada facilitada nesses países por uma região que funciona como um centro de dispersão (hub) por ser encontro de rotas migratórias de animais. Ademais, investigamos a ocorrência de rearranjos de segmentos genômicos de RVFV e também estudamos as diferenças nas dinâmicas evolutivas de cada segmento. / In this study, we investigated the phylodynamics of three different viral models, using techniques based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. Two of these viruses are flaviviruses, whose genomes are formed by a single-stranded positive-sense RNA molecule. The third is a Bunyavirus with tri-segmented single-stranded RNA genome with negative sense. These different models allowed us to investigate two different mechanisms to promote viral diversity, (i) recombination of genomic segments (\"shift\") and (ii) mutation (\"drift\"), therefore exploring different levels of granularity of evolutionary process. We described for the first time the geographic spread of Zika virus (ZIKV) strains in a continental level, as well as, the occurrence of recombination and association between glycosylation patterns and vectors. For the other Flavivirus, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), we investigated its spreading and found evidences to support the hypothesis that viral circulation is very constrained by the foci in central Europe. The analyses about the Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV) revealed the occurrence of reassortment of genomic segments and their dispersal from eastern Africa to the west, with several introductions to Senegal and Mauritania. Apparently, the entry of RVFV in these countries was facilitated by the region of Kedougou, where several migratory routes of animals converge. This place maybe works as a hub to spread RVFV for West Africa. Moreover, we also investigated the differences in evolutionary dynamics of each genomic segment of RVFV.

No presente trabalho, investigamos a filodinâmica de três modelos virais diferentes, utilizando técnicas baseadas em verossimilhança e inferência bayesiana. Dois desses são flavivírus com genoma de RNA fita simples e senso positivo. O terceiro é um bunyavírus com genoma tri-segmentado de RNA fita simples com senso negativo. Estes diferentes modelos permitiram estudar diferentes mecanismos promotores de diversidade viral, reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos (shift) e mutação (drift), que atuam em diferentes granularidades. Descrevemos pela primeira vez o espalhamento geográfico das linhagens de vírus Zika (ZIKV) em um nível continental, assim como ocorrência de recombinação e associação entre padrões de glicosilação e vetores. Para o flavivírus da encefalite transmitida por carrapatos (TBEV), investigamos seu espalhamento e encontramos evidências que corroboram a hipótese de circulação viral restrita a focos na Europa central. As análises sobre o vírus da Febre da Grande Fenda Africana (RVFV) apontaram a ocorrência de reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos e também ajudaram a elucidar sua dispersão do leste do continente africano para o oeste, encontrando-se diversas introduções no Senegal e Mauritânia. Aparentemente, este vírus teve a entrada facilitada nesses países por uma região que funciona como um centro de dispersão (hub) por ser encontro de rotas migratórias de animais. Ademais, investigamos a ocorrência de rearranjos de segmentos genômicos de RVFV e também estudamos as diferenças nas dinâmicas evolutivas de cada segmento. / In this study, we investigated the phylodynamics of three different viral models, using techniques based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. Two of these viruses are flaviviruses, whose genomes are formed by a single-stranded positive-sense RNA molecule. The third is a Bunyavirus with tri-segmented single-stranded RNA genome with negative sense. These different models allowed us to investigate two different mechanisms to promote viral diversity, (i) recombination of genomic segments (\"shift\") and (ii) mutation (\"drift\"), therefore exploring different levels of granularity of evolutionary process. We described for the first time the geographic spread of Zika virus (ZIKV) strains in a continental level, as well as, the occurrence of recombination and association between glycosylation patterns and vectors. For the other Flavivirus, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), we investigated its spreading and found evidences to support the hypothesis that viral circulation is very constrained by the foci in central Europe. The analyses about the Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV) revealed the occurrence of reassortment of genomic segments and their dispersal from eastern Africa to the west, with several introductions to Senegal and Mauritania. Apparently, the entry of RVFV in these countries was facilitated by the region of Kedougou, where several migratory routes of animals converge. This place maybe works as a hub to spread RVFV for West Africa. Moreover, we also investigated the differences in evolutionary dynamics of each genomic segment of RVFV.