Les précurseurs neuraux dérivés de cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPS-NPCs) peuvent représenter la source cellulaire autologue idéale pour la thérapie cellulaire visant à promouvoir la remyélinisation et la neuroprotection des maladies de la myéline. Jusqu'à présent, le potentiel thérapeutique de ces cellules a été abordé dans des conditions néonatales. Cependant, l'efficacité de la réparation et de la sécurité de ces cellules dans le système nerveux central (SNC), une condition associée à une diminution de la plasticité cellulaire et effarouchement, reste à être bien traités. D'ailleurs, il reste à démontrer si le comportement de ces cellules ressemble à celle des NPCs du SNC. D'abord, j'ai comparé des iPS-NPCs de souris avec des cellules embryonnaires du SNC, in vitro et après greffe dans des modèles de démyélinisation de la moelle épinière de souris adulte. Nos données ont révélé la capacité de survie, intégration, migration et différenciation rapide des cellules greffées en oligodendrocytes matures. Les cellules greffées ont généré de la myéline compacte autour des axones, la restauration de n¿uds de Ranvier et la vitesse de conduction aussi efficacement que les précurseurs du SNC dérivés tandis supplantant cellules endogènes. Ensuite, pour valider la fonctionnalité des précurseurs gliaux humains dérivés des iPS-NPC, je les ai transplantés dans des modèles nouveau-nés et adultes de dys/démyélinisation. Mes données ont montré la migration généralisée, l'intégration et génération de oligodendrocytes fonctionnels, la formation de la myéline compacte tout en reconstruisant n¿uds de Ranvier dans chez les nouveau-nés et les adultes greffés. / Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural precursor cells (iPS-NPCs) may represent the ideal autologous cell source for cell-based therapy to promote remyelination and neuroprotection in myelin diseases and can serve as suitable tools to model myelin disorders or to test the potential of pharmacological compounds. So far the therapeutic potential of these cells was approached in neonatal conditions. However, the repair efficacy and safety of these cells in the demyelinated adult central nervous system (CNS), a condition associated with decreased cell plasticity and scaring, remains to be well addressed. Moreover, whether the therapeutic behavior of these pluripotent-derived cells resembles that of physiologically committed CNS-derived precursors remains elusive. First, I used mouse iPS-NPCs and compared them side-by-side to embryonic CNS-derived cells, in vitro and in vivo after engraftment in models of adult spinal cord demyelination. My data revealed the prominent capacity of survival, safe integration, migration and timely differentiation of the grafted cells into mature oligodendrocytes. Grafted cells generated compact myelin around host axons, restoring nodes of Ranvier and conduction velocity as efficiently as CNS-derived precursors while outcompeting endogenous cells. Second, to validate the functionality of human iPS-NPC-derived glial precursors, I transplanted them in newborn and adult models of dys/demyelination. My data showed widespread migration, integration and extensive generation of functional oligodendrocytes ensheathing host axons, forming compact myelin while reconstructing nodes of Ranvier both in newborn grafted and adult demyelination contexts.

No description available.

No description available.

The anti-inflammatory and restorative effects of the flavonoid-enriched fraction AF4 were examined in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Relative to EAE mice that received vehicle (water, 10 ml/kg/day), oral administration of AF4 (25 mg/kg/day) beginning 24 hours after the onset of clinical signs reduced disease progression that was accompanied by diminished pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression (cerebellum and spinal cord) and protein concentrations in the plasma. LPS-induced release of TNF-? from the whole blood of EAE mice that received AF4 was reduced at peak disease severity (day 18) but not once central inflammation had declined (day 31) indicative of unique immune modulator properties. Lastly, the expression of myelin-associated genes (PGC-1?, SCD1, and MBP) suggestive of remyelination was enhanced in the spinal cord of EAE mice that received AF4. These findings suggest that AF4 reduces EAE severity by selectively inhibiting autoimmunity and enhancing the expression of genes necessary for remyelination.

No description available.

Remyelination describes the regeneration of myelin sheaths, and is considered one of the most promising strategies for improving the prognosis of demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Data from animal models and human studies have shown that remyelination can occur extensively in the central nervous system (CNS), leading to functional recovery and axonal protection. However, remyelination does not always proceed to completion, and its failure is associated with progressive neurological disability. Thus, there is clinical need for interventions that can optimise the conditions for remyelination. Recent advances in genomics and animal husbandry have kindled an interest in the microbiome as a means to influence processes throughout the body. Our commensal microbes communicate with host cells at epithelial barriers, stimulate neural and endocrine axes and directly produce a plethora of long-range signalling molecules. Critically, the development and maintenance of the immune system depend on signals from the microbiota, and we know that a well-coordinated immune response is a key determinant of the success of remyelination. This thesis explores how the microbiome can influence CNS remyelination. To do so, I have studied remyelination in three murine models of microbiome alteration. Firstly, long-term oral administration of an antibiotic cocktail was used to deplete the microbiota of adult mice. Following focal demyelination, these mice had deficits in their inflammatory response, clearance of myelin debris and differentiation of new oligodendrocytes from oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). Faecal microbial transplant was able to rescue aspects of the inflammatory response and phagocytosis, but not OPC differentiation. Secondly, I looked at remyelination in germ-free (GF) mice following cuprizone-induced demyelina- tion. As with the antibiotics-treated mice, there were deficits in inflammation following demyelination, which tended to peak later than in control mice. Finally, I investigated the potential of a therapeutic probiotic (VSL#3) to improve remyelination in aged mice. In contrast to antibiotic treatment, probiotic administration caused a slight enhancement in the onset of inflammation following focal demyelination. However, there was no significant improvement in OPC differentiation or toluidine blue rank analysis, suggesting these changes in inflammation were not sufficient to positively modulate remyelination. The results from these three studies introduce a significant but previously unconsidered environmental influence on remyelination in the CNS. Whilst the effects are subtle relative to more direct interventions, the microbiome can be manipulated simply and non-invasively, which may provide a useful adjunct to other strategies for optimising remyelination.

Chez les patients atteints de sclérose en plaques (SEP), l'inflammation induit une demyélinisation et une mort neuronale. La capacité de remyélinisation, hétérogène chez les patients, est intimement corrélée à la sévérité des symptômes. Les raisons de cette hétérogénéité ne sont pas connues, principalement car ce mécanisme n'a jamais été étudié dans un contexte expérimental approprié. Afin d'y remédier, nous avons développé un nouveau modèle en combinant une démyélinisation focale chez des souris nude à une greffe de lymphocytes (LT) provenant de donneurs sains ou de patients SEP. Cette modèle nous a permis de reproduire l'hétérogénéité de remyélinisation. En comparant le profil de sécrétion des patients selon leur capacité de réparation, nous avons mis en évidence des différences dans celui-ci, qui induisait selon le cas une activation bénéfique ou délétère des microglies ayant pour conséquence une différentiation efficace ou entravée des cellules précurseur d'oligodendrocytes. Cette capacité hétérogène des LT à répondre à une stimulation est partiellement expliqué par le background génétique du patients : les patients porteurs de variants associés à des gènes impliqués dans la fonction des LT folliculaires et des LT CD4+ naïfs induisaient un défaut de remyélinisation lorsque greffés dans une lésion démyélinisée, et ce en dirigeant l'activation microgliale vers un phénotype délétère. En résumé, les LT dirigent l'activation microgliale lors de la remyélinisation et sont donc au moins partiellement responsables de l'échec ou de la réussite de ce mécanisme. La façon dont ils réagissent à la démyélinisation est au moins en partie due au patrimoine génétique du patient. / Inflammation in the central nervous system leads to demyelination and neurodegeneration in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). MS severity is closely correlated with the efficacy of myelin repair, a process whose effectiveness is very heterogeneous among patients. The reasons of this heterogeneity are largely unknown, mainly because it has never been addressed in a humanized pathological context. To tackle this question, we developed a new model combining focal demyelination in nude mice and graft of MS or healthy donor (HD) lymphocytes (LT). We were able to reproduce partially remyelination heterogeneity. Comparing the secretory profile of patients LT according to their repair capacities, we highlighted an heterogeneous cytokine response leading to a differential microglial (MIG) activation and ultimately an efficient or inefficient maturation of precursor cells during remyelination. To decipher why LT from patients display an heterogeneous response, we hypothesized that the genetic variants known for MS susceptibility could also drive disease severity by influencing LT functions. We found that the interaction of variants associated with genes responsible for T Folicular Helper and naïve Th0 cells functions induce the secretion by patient LT induce a pro-inflammatory activation in MIG, leading to remyelination failure.LT orchestrate MIG activation and are therefore responsible for the success or failure of remyelination. Capitalizing on patients with high repair capacities to understand the cellular and molecular actors leading to successful remyelination in pathological conditions seem to be a key approach to develop therapeutical targets.

Remyelination is a regenerative process that occurs through the formation of myelin sheaths by oligodendrocytes, which are recruited as oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) after demyelination in diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis (MS).A key environmental factor regulating OPC differentiation is the fate of myelin debris generated during demyelination. Myelin debris contains inhibitors of OPC differentiation and thus its clearance by phagocytic macrophages is an important component of creating a lesion environment conducive to remyelination. The efficiency of debris clearance declines with age, contributing to the age-associated decline in remyelination. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of the age-related decline in myelin debris phagocytosis is important for devising means to therapeutically reverse the decline in remyelination. The aim of this study was to determine the functional/molecular differences between young and old phagocytes involved in myelin debris clearance, thereby identifying therapeutically modifiable pathways associated with efficient myelin debris phagocytosis. In this study, we show that expression of genes involved in the retinoid X receptor (RXR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) pathways are decreased with ageing in both myelin-phagocytosing human monocytes and mouse macrophages. Disruption of RXR and PPAR using synthetic antagonists in young macrophages mimics ageing by reducing myelin debris uptake. Macrophage-specific RXR? knockout mice revealed that loss of RXR function in young mice caused delayed myelin debris uptake and slowed remyelination. Alternatively, receptor agonists partially restored myelin debris phagocytosis in aged macrophages. The FDA-approved agonists bexarotene and pioglitazone, when used in concentrations achievable in human subjects, caused a reversion of the gene expression profiles in MS patient monocytes to a more youthful profile and enhanced myelin debris phagocytosis by patient cells. Activation of these pathways also enhances immunoregulatory markers on monocytes from MS patients, further suggesting the regeneration-promoting capacity of activating these pathways in phagocytes. These results reveal the RXR/PPAR pathway as a positive regulator of myelin debris clearance and a key player in the age-related decline in remyelination that may be targeted by available or newly-developed therapeutics.

La lignée transgénique pMBP-eGFP-NTR, que nous avons générée chez Xenopus laevis, permet une ablation conditionnelle des oligodendrocytes myélinisants, dont la conséquence est une démyélinisation. Dans cette lignée transgénique, le transgène est formé par une protéine de fusion entre le rapporteur GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein= protéine fluoresçant en vert) et une enzyme de sélection, la nitroréductase d’E. Coli. Cette enzyme, a la propriété de réduire le radical nitrite (NO2) de certains substrats (comme le métronidazole) en dérivé hydroxylamine extrêmement toxique pour la cellule qui l’exprime. L’expression de ce transgène est contrôlée par la portion proximale du gène MBP (myelin basic protein), séquence régulatrice, dont l’équipe avait démontré, chez la souris, qu’elle ne s’exprime que dans les oligodendrocytes myélinisants, ce qui c’est vérifié chez le xénope. Mon projet se proposait d’étudier les conséquences de la démyélinisation et de la remyélinisation dans cette lignée transgénique de Xenopus laevis. Mon objectif avait pour but de répondre à deux questions; Tout d’abord, qu’elle est la nature des cellules qui remplacent les oligodendrocytes éliminés: Nous montrons que les cellules responsables de la remyélinisation sont les précurseurs des oligodendrocytes (OPCs), cellules GFP négatives caractérisées par l’expression du facteur de transcription Sox10. Ces cellules OPCs sont déjà présentent dans le nerf optique avant l’événement de démyélinisation. La seconde question visait à examiner les conséquences d’une démyélinisation sur l’arborisation des axones des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine. A cette fin nous avons mis au point un outil expérimental permettant de visualiser l’arborisation des projections tectales des axones des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine par microscopie in vivo réalisée sur le têtard au stade 55. Nous montrons que bien que cette arborisation soit plus sensible à l’imagerie après démyélinisation, chez le transgénique que chez le contrôle, cela n’entraine pas de changement de la motilité de l’arborisation. / We have generated a Xenopus laevis transgenic line, pMBP-eGFP-NTR, allowing conditional ablation of myelin-forming oligodendrocytes. In this transgenic line the transgene is driven by the proximal portion of myelin basic protein (MBP) regulatory sequence, specific to mature oligodendrocytes. The transgene protein is formed by GFP reporter fused to the E. coli nitroreductase (NTR) selection enzyme. This enzyme converts the innocuous pro-drug metronidazole (MTZ) to a cytotoxin. My PhD project is to study the effect of demyelination and remyelination in Xenopus Laevis in this transgenic line. We wish to answer two questions using this transgenic. First, the origin of remyelinating cells that replace the ablated oligodendrocytes. We have shown that, Sox10+ OPCs, which are already present in the optic nerve prior to the experimentally induced demyelination, are responsible for remyelination. The second question is to examine the effect of demyelination of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axonal arbor morphology. We developed an experimental set up to image the RGC arbor morphology in an awake stage 55 tadpole in real time. We show that the arbor is more sensitive than the control to imaging but there is no change in motility of the arbor.

Oligodendrocytes are the predominant cell type in white matter and are highly vulnerable to ischemic injury. The role of oligodendrocyte dysfunction in ischemic brain injury is unknown. In this study, we used a 24-amino acid peptide S14G-Humanin (HNG) to examine oligodendrogenesis and neurological functional recovery in a hypoxic/ischemic (H/I) neonatal model. Intraperitoneal HNG pre-treatment decreased infarct volume following H/I injury. Delayed HNG treatment 24 h after H/I injury did not reduce infarct volume but did decrease neurological deficits and brain atrophy. Delayed HNG treatment did not attenuate axonal demyelination at 48 h after H/I injury. However, at 14 d after H/I injury, delayed HNG treatment increased axonal remyelination, the thickness of corpus callosum at the midline, the number of Olig2+/BrdU+ cells, and levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Our results suggest that targeting oligodendrogenesis via delayed HNG treatment may represent a promising approach for the treatment of stroke.