Abstract The use of antibiotics in aquaculture may cause development of antibiotic resistance among pathogens infecting cultured animals and humans. Therefore, the phages were isolated from the culture environment that can infect the pathogen and resistant bacteria. In this study, there were vibriophage and antibacterial phage isolated from CLOZ andSCKF. The small and circle plaque of vibriophage could become striking by decrease in top agar percentage. The electron micrographs of vibriophage and antibacterial phage belonged to the Podoviridae and Myroviridae family. The phages genome could be cut by HidinIII. The different size fragments were compared and matched to similar genome size of phages from NCBI. For the result, vibriophage may belong to the Picovirinae in Podoviridae. The antibacterial phage would be classified into either Mu-like viruses or unclassified Myoviridae. In the infecting test with (103 PFU/ml), the vibriophage lysing the host cell was not evident. Then, infecting with ϕA, ϕ20 and ϕ70 107 PFU/ml), the ϕA could lyse the cell and test the lowest OD after two hours by infecting. ϕ20 lysed the cell at exponential phase and antibacterial phage ϕ70 could lysed the host cell at different ages after six hours by infecting. A could lyse the cell and test the lowest OD after two hours by infecting. ϕ20 lysed the cell at exponential phase and antibacterial phage ϕ70 could lysed the host cell at different ages after six hours by infecting.

No description available.

The image resolution of atomic force microscopy (AFM) is still less superior to that of the electron microscopy (EM). However AFM operated in liquids complemented by Tapping-mode (TM) detection proves to be more suitable for imaging biomolecules in physiological-like environments. Nevertheless, manipulation of AFM in solution turned out to be non-trivial, several technical difficulties were encountered. In the thesis, I report using divalent cation-containing buffer as a feasible method to immobilize DNA molecules effectively for imaging in liquid media. AFM operating conditions, such as cantilever oscillating drive frequency, setpoint amplitude, feedback control parameters and scan rates were studied to obtain the optimized function. Various AFM images of Ssp I-linearized pUC19 DNA/EcoR I restriction enzyme complexes were captured, revealing the molecular details of their complex machineries. For example, the intermediate stage of the enzyme cleavage action was displayed by images showing that DNA was bent by an acute angle at the active site in the presence of one single EcoR I molecule. Some evidence for a jumping, sliding or intersegmental transfer mechanism is achieved. To trace the enzyme-DNA interaction dynamic in real time, preliminary results were obtained, but further improvements are required.

No description available.

Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is the most commonly inherited disease that causes blindness in one or both eyes, with a minimum prevalence of 1 in 31 000 in the northeast of England. What causes LHON is not fully known but three mitochondrial mutations, G3460A, G11778A, and T14484C, have been identified in over 95 % of all LHON patients. To diagnose LHON, detection methods like sequencing, allele specific polymerase chain reaction and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) are used to identify these three mutations. The methods are now evolving into multiplex ones to increase efficiency, the aim of this study was therefore to optimize one of them, a multiplex PCR-RFLP method developed in 2015. This study was however not completed, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but a series of preparatory steps were performed before its termination. DNA extraction was performed, both genomic and plasmid, using a kit and in-house protocols. The DNA was then used for polymerase chain reactions (PCRs), for both the human β-globin gene and for the three mutations, where magnesium concentration and annealing temperature was optimized. This study resulted in clear, high quality extractions, with the kit as the preferable method. It also indicated that a 3 mM magnesium concentration and an annealing temperature of 59 °C was optimal for all mutations when using so called LHON primers. The conditions for the PCR using the multiplex primers might be different, therefore a new study is required to evaluate the multiplex PCR-RFLP method further. / Bakgrund: Lebers hereditära optikusneuropati (LHON) är en vanlig ärftlig sjukdom som orsakar blindhet. LHON orsakas i över 95 % av fallen av en av tre mitokondriella mutationer, där en byggsten i mitokondriens DNA felaktigt bytts ut mot en annan. Dessa mutationer heter G3460A, G11778A och T14484C. För att diagnostisera sjukdomen detekteras mutationerna, bland annat genom att extrahera DNA från blod, DNA som man sedan skapar otaliga kopior av genom en metod som heter ”polymerase chain reaction” (PCR). Dessa kopior kan sedan klyvas i bitar med hjälp av enzym och baserat på fragmentens storlek kan det avgöras om personen har mutationen eller inte, detta kallas för ”restriction fragment length polymorphism” (RFLP). I nuläget letar man efter en mutation i taget men det har utvecklats några metoder där man kan hitta alla mutationer på en gång och den här studiens syfte var att undersöka hur man på bästa sätt kan utföra en av dessa metoder, en så kallad multiplex PCR-RFLP. Metod: Studien avbröts i förtid på grund av ett pandemiskt utbrott av COVID-19 men hann omfatta DNA-extraktion från humant blod och bakterier med hjälp av ett kommersiellt kit och laboratoriets egna protokoll. Även PCR utfördes för en normal genuppsättning och de tre mutationerna. Resultat och slutsats: Extraktionen gav bra resultat med alla metoder men det kommersiella kitet gav bäst resultat. PCR med det DNA som extraherats fungerade bara ibland vilket gjorde det svårt att dra några större slutsatser, oavsett krävs fler studier för att undersöka metoden eftersom arbetet inte kunde slutföras.

Restriction endonucleases occur ubiquitously among bacteria, archaea and in viruses of certain unicellular algae, and they are usually accompanied by a modification enzyme of identical specificity; together, the two activities form a restriction-modification (R-M) system- the prokaryotic equivalent of an immune system. More than 3,800 R-M enzymes have been characterized so far and they manifest 262 unique recognition specificities. These enzymes represent the largest family of functionally related enzymes. Based on the number and organization of subunits, cofactor requirements, catalytic mechanism, and sequence specificity, restriction enzymes have been classified into different types, Types I, II, III, and IV. R-M systems are important model systems for studying highly specific DNA-Protein interactions and serve as excellent systems for investigating structure-function relationship and for understanding the evolution of functionally similar enzymes with highly dissimilar sequence. In bacteria, DNA methyltransferases (MTases) associated with R-M systems protects the host DNA from cleavage by the cognate restriction endonuclease recognizing the same sequence and provides the integrity of host cell genome against foreign DNA invasion. The modification MTases catalyses the addition of a methyl group to one nucleotide in each strand of the recognition sequence using S-adenosyl-L-methionine (AdoMet) as the methyl group donor. Based on the chemistry of the methylation reaction catalyzed, DNA MTases are classified as C5 enzymes (endocyclic MTases), which transfer the methyl group to C5 position of cytosine, and N6 and N4 enzymes (exocyclic amino MTases), which transfer the methyl group to the exocyclic amino group of adenine or cytosine, respectively. DNA MTases of all three types contain conserved regions, which are responsible for catalysis and AdoMet binding, and variable regions known as target recognition domains (TRD), which determine the substrate specificity of a particular enzyme. Ten conserved amino acid motifs (I–X) are found in C5 MTases. Exocyclic DNA MTases are subdivided further into six groups (namely α, β, γ, ζ, δ and ε), according to the linear arrangements of three conserved motifs, the AdoMet-binding domain (FXGXG), the TRD (target recognition domain) and the catalytic domain (D/N/S)PP(Y/F). Base flipping has been proposed as a general mechanism used by all MTases in which the target base to be methylated is rotated 180º out of the DNA into a catalytic domain (motif IV). EcoP15I restriction enzyme (R.EcoP15I) belongs to the Type III restriction-modification (R-M) family. These enzymes are composed of two subunits, Res (Restriction) and Mod (Modification). The Mod subunit alone functions as a DNA methyltransferase in presence of AdoMet and magnesium and determines the specificity for restriction and methylation, whereas restriction activity requires the cooperation of both the Res and Mod subunits. EcoP15I methyltransferase (M.EcoP15I), a homodimeric enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from AdoMet to the second adenine residue in the recognition sequence, 5’-CAGCAG-3’, in presence of magnesium ions. M.EcoP15I belongs to the β-subfamily of N6-adenine methyltransferases. In addition to the two highly conserved sequence motifs, FXGXG (motif 1) involved in AdoMet binding and DPPY (motif IV) involved in catalysis, the amino acid residues of the region 355-377 contains a PD(X)n(D/E)XK-like motif involved in metal binding. A Mutation in the Mod Subunit of EcoP15I Restriction Enzyme Converts the DNA Methyltransferase to a Site-Specific Endonuclease An interesting aspect of M.EcoP15I is that the methylation requires magnesium and magnesium binding to the PD(X)n(D/E)XK-like motif participates in base flipping. The PD-(D/E)XK superfamily of Mg2+-dependent nucleases were initially identified in structurally characterized Type II REases and later found in many enzymes involved in DNA replication, recombination and repair. The charged residues from the catalytic triads are implicated in metal ion mediated DNA cleavage. In EcoP15I DNA methyltransferase, a PD(X)n(D/E)XK like motif is present in which the partially conserved proline is replaced by methionine (MD(X)18(D/E)XK). Using site-directed mutagenesis methionine at 357 was changed to proline (M357P), which resulted in the formation of a Mg2+ binding/catalytic motif similar to several Mg2+-dependent endonucleases. Substitution of methionine at position 357 by proline converts EcoP15I DNA methyltransferase to a site-specific endonuclease. The mutant protein specifically binds to the recognition sequence 5’-CAGCAG-3’ and cleaves DNA in presence of Mg2+. The engineered EcoP15I-M357P is an active, sequence-dependent restriction endonuclease that cleaves DNA 10/1 nucleotide away from its recognition sequence in the presence of Mg2+. Unlike the holoenzyme, R.EcoP15I, the engineered endonuclease neither requires AdoMet or ATP nor requires two sites in the inverted orientation for DNA cleavage. It is of potential interest to use such an engineered enzyme as a genetic manipulation tool. Dimerisation of EcoP15I DNA Methyltransferase is Required for Sequence Recognition and Catalysis In the cell, after each round of replication, substrate for any DNA MTase is hemimethylated DNA and therefore, only a single methylation event restores the fully methylated state. This is in agreement with the fact that most of the DNA MTases studied exist as monomers in solution. The peculiar feature of M.EcoP15I is that it methylates only one strand of the DNA, at the N6-position of the adenine residue. Earlier studies using gel filtration and glutaraldehyde cross-linking demonstrated that M.EcoP15I exists as dimer in solution. However, the significance of dimerisation in the reaction mechanism of EcoP15I MTase is not clear. Therefore, experiments have been performed to determine whether M.EcoP15I could function as a monomer and the significance of dimerisation, if any, in catalysis. Towards this a homology model of the M.EcoP15I was generated by “FRankenstein monster” approach. Residues D223, V225, and V392, the side chains of which are present in the putative dimerisation interface in the model were targeted for site-directed mutagenesis. These residues were mutated to lysine and their importance was studied. Methylation and in vitro restriction assays showed that the triple mutant was catalytically inactive. Interestingly, the mutations resulted in weakening of the interaction between the monomers leading to both monomeric and dimeric species. M.EcoP15I was inactive in the monomeric form and therefore, dimerisation might be the initial step in its function. This must be required for positioning of the target base of the DNA in the active-site pocket of the M.EcoP15I. A part of this interface may be involved in site-specific DNA binding. Dimerisation of M.EcoP15I is, therefore, a prerequisite for the high-affinity substrate binding needed for efficient catalysis. Understanding the role(s) of Amino and Carboxyl-terminal Domains of EcoP15I DNA Methyltransferase in DNA Recognition and Catalysis N-terminal and C- terminal domains (NTD and CTD) of proteins are known to play many important roles such as folding, stability, dimerisation, regulation of gene expression, enzyme activity and substrate binding. From the modeled dimeric structure of M.EcoP15I, it was hypothesized that N- and C-termini are in close proximity with each other. In addition, it was predicted that each monomer can bind to AdoMet and DNA. Towards understanding the role(s) of the N- and C-terminal domains of M.EcoP15I in its structure and function, N-, and C-terminal deletions were created. Interestingly, deletion of N-terminal 53 amino acids and C-terminal 127 amino acids from of EcoP15I MTase converted the dimeric enzyme to a stable, monomeric protein that was structurally stable but enzymatically inactive. Each monomer could bind single-stranded DNA but dimerisation was required for double-stranded DNA binding and methylation. This indicated that amino acids at the N- and C-termini are important for maintaining a proper dimeric structure for M.EcoP15I functions. Therefore, it can be proposed that in a complex three-dimensional structure, the NTD and CTD should be properly maintained in order to execute its function, including dimerisation and DNA binding. However, since the 3D structure of M.EcoP15I has not yet been determined, the biochemical, biophysical and bioinformatics approaches may serve to provide useful information on the relative contributions of the electrostatic forces and hydrophobic contacts to the structural stability. Understanding the structural organization and folding of M.EcoP15I is crucial to elucidation of the mechanism of action.

No description available.

No description available.

Analysis of rhesus monkey alphoid DNA suggests that it arose by tandem duplication of an ancestral monomer unit followed by independent variation within two adjacent monomers (one becoming more divergent than the other) before their amplification as a dimer unit to produce tandem arrays. The rhesus monkey alphoid DNA is a tandemly repeated, 343-bp dimer; the consensus dimer is over 98% homologous to the alphoid dimers reported for baboon and bonnet monkey, 81% homologous to the African green monkey alpha monomer, and less than 70% homologous to the more divergent human alphoid DNAs. The consensus dimer consists of two wings (I and II, 172 and 171 bp, respectively) that are only 70% homologous to each other, but share seven regions of exact homology. These same regions are highly conserved among the consensus sequences of the other cercopithecid alphoid DNAs. The three alpha-protein binding sites reported for African green monkey alpha DNA by F. Strauss and A. Varshavsky (Cell 37: 889-901, 1984) occur in wings I and II, but with one site altered in wing I. Two cloned dimer segments are 98% homologous to the consensus, each containing 8 single-base-pair differences within the 343-bp segment. Surprisingly, 37% of these differences occur in regions that are evolutionarily conserved in the alphoid consensus sequences, including the alpha-protein binding sites. Sequence variation in this highly repetitive DNA family may produce unique nucleosomal architectures for different members of an alphoid array. These unique architectures may modulate the evolution of these repetitive DNAs and may produce unique centromeric characteristics in primate chromosomes.

DNA-Restriktions und -Modifikationssysteme sind in Prokaryoten weit verbreitet und stellen einen wirksamen Schutz gegen das Eindringen mobiler genetischer Elemente dar. Sie kodieren für eine Restriktionsendonuklease (REase) und eine DNA-Methyltransferase (MTase) gleicher Nukleotidsequenz Spezifität. Die MTase methyliert die zelluläre DNA und schützt sie durch diesen epigenetischen Marker vor der Wirkung der REase. Die REase verhindert die Aufnahme fremder, unmethylierter DNA durch sequenzspezifische Spaltung. EcoRII ist eine REase, die für die effiziente DNA-Spaltung mindestens zwei Kopien ihrer Erkennungssequenz benötigt. Untersuchungen der EcoRII-Struktur und -Funktion offenbarten, dass das Protein aus zwei stabilen Domänen aufgebaut ist, wobei die N-terminale Domäne wie ein Repressor die C-terminale Domäne sterisch blockiert und deren katalytische Aktivität verhindert. Dieser als Autoinhibition bezeichnete und von eukaryotischen Proteinen gut bekannter Regulationsmechanismus wurde erstmals für eine REase vorgeschlagen. In dieser Arbeit konnten wir die Regulation der EcoRII-Enzymaktivität durch Autoinhibition auf molekularer Ebene beweisen. Wir identifizierten ß-Strang 1 (B1: 18YFVYIKR24) und a-Helix 2 (H2: 26SANDT30) als essenzielle inhibitorische Elemente der N-terminalen Domäne des EcoRII-Moleküls. Die Deletion von B1 oder H2 führte zu einer vollständigen Aufhebung der Autoinhibition. Darüber hinaus ist es uns gelungen, die 3D-Röntgenkristallstruktur von EcoRII mit 1,9 Å zu lösen und mit Hilfe von Computermodellen neue Interaktionen des Enzyms mit der DNA „minor groove“ zu beschreiben sowie eine Mg2+-Bindungstasche zu charakterisieren. Die Untersuchung der EcoRII-MTase durch limitierte Proteolyse zeigte, dass das Enzym in Abhängigkeit von der DNA-Sequenz und von seinen Kofaktoren, DNA auf unterschiedliche Weise binden kann. Kristallisierungsversuche der EcoRII-MTase in Anwesenheit der hemi-methylierten DNA-Erkennungssequenz ergaben erste diffraktierende Kristalle, deren Qualität optimiert werden muss und zur Strukturlösung führen soll. / Restriction and modification systems are wide spread among prokaryotes and pre-sent an efficient protection against invasion of mobile genetic elements. In general, they code for a restriction endonuclease (REase) and a DNA-methyltransferase (MTase) of the same DNA specificity. The MTase methylates the cellular DNA and by this epigenetic marker protects it against the action of the REase. The REase pre-vents the entry of foreign unmethylated DNA by site-specific cleavage. EcoRII is an REase which needs at least two copies of the recognition sequence for efficient cleavage. Investigations of the EcoRII structure and function revealed that the pro-tein is composed of two stable domains: the N-terminal domain acts as a repressor by sterically blocking the C-terminal domain and thereby inhibiting its catalytic activity. This regulatory mechanism is known as autoinhibition and has been often described for eukaryotic proteins, but for the first time was proposed for a REase. In this work, we verified the regulation of the EcoRII enzyme activity by autoinhibition at the molecular level. We identified ß-strand 1 (B1: 18YFVYIKR24) and a-helix 2 (H2: 26SANDT30) as essential inhibitory elements of the N-terminal domain. Deletion of B1 or H2 caused a complete abolishment of the autoinhibition. Fur-thermore, we were able to solve the 3D-X-ray crystal structure of EcoRII at 1.9 Å. Based on computer modelling we discovered new interactions between EcoRII and the DNA minor groove and defined the position of the Mg2+ binding pocket. Investigations of the EcoRII MTase by limited proteolysis showed that the enzyme binds DNA depending on DNA sequence and cofactors in different manners. Crystallography experiments with EcoRII MTase in the presence of hemimethylated recognition site DNA showed for the first time diffracting crystals which need further optimisation to create high quality crystals which allow structure solution.