Introduction: African American adolescents have a higher prevalence of risky sexual behavior compared to Hispanic and White adolescents. African American adolescents account for 65% of HIV diagnoses among individuals aged 13 to 24 years (Jackson et al., 2015). The rising rate of new STI and HIV cases remains a public health concern and the need for intervention in target populations is outstanding. The objective of this study is to measure the association between alcohol and other substance use and risky sexual behaviors in African American adolescents in the United States. Methods: Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) 2015 National Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey (YRBS) was used in this study. SAS 9.3 software package was used for descriptive analysis, univariate logistic regression, and multivariate logistic regression of assessing the relationship between alcohol and drug use with risky sexual behaviors in black adolescents in comparison with white adolescents. Results: When controlling for age, gender, and all other variables, African American adolescents that reported ever consuming alcohol were 2.2 (OR=2.2 95% CI=1.6-3.2 p= <.0001) times more likely to ever had sex, 3.8 (OR=3.8 95% CI= 2.9-4.9 p= <.0001) times more likely to have had sex with 4 or more people in the past 3 months, and 1.3 (OR=1.3 95% CI=0.8-2.1 p= <.0001) times more likely to have had sexual intercourse with at least 4 people in their lifetime. When asked if they ever used marijuana, adolescents that reported at least once were 4.5 (OR=4.5 95% CI= 3.2-6.5 p=<.0001) likely to have engaged in sexual intercourse, 3.8 (OR=3.8 95% CI=2.6-5.5 p= <.0001) times more likely to have had sex with four or more people in the past 3 months, and 6.1 (OR=6.1 95% CI=3.7-10.2 p= <.0001) times more likely to have at least 4 sexual partners in their lifetime. Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that use of illicit substances does increase risky sexual behaviors in African American Adolescents. Further implications of this study can be utilized in the development of intervention programs. Intervention programs should target African American adolescents that engage in risky sexual behaviors and any substance use.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychological Sciences / Gary L. Brase / Risky decision making occurs in both humans and non-human animals. For a large portion of the history of scientific investigation into human judgment and decision making, risky behavior has been viewed as flawed and irrational. However, the past several decades have seen advances in the view of human rationality. Scientists have suggested that, rather than using probability theory as the metric by which humans are judged as rational or irrational, human minds should be evaluated with respect to specific ecologies (e.g., Gigerenzer & Selten, 2001) with some scientists going further and specifying the ecologies as those which our ancestors evolved; essentially, our minds and their decision processes are adapted to solve specific recurring problems, and to solve those problems in specific environments. Within the domain of risky decision making there are a number of theories and models which are consistent with the hypothesis that human (and non-human) minds are molded for specific behavioral patterns based on environmental cues. One example is the priority heuristic. The priority heuristic is based in the ecological rationality approach—that heuristics are designed for specific ecologies. However, the ecological rationality of the priority heuristic is underspecified. Studies One and Two of the present dissertation compared predictions made by two models of risk-taking from evolutionary biology and behavioral ecology (dominance theory and risk-sensitive foraging) with a variety of predictions made by the priority heuristic. Data clearly showed that risk-sensitive foraging outperforms the priority heuristic (Study One) and that the priority heuristic cannot account for the motivation to acquire a minimum number of resources. Study Two showed mixed results for the priority heuristic when compared to dominance theory. Specifically, choice patterns were consistent with the priority heuristic, but process data in the form of decision times were not consistent with the priority heuristic. Also, the data pointed to a strong effect for desiring higher status when competing against others of varying status. Study Three compared four potential models of risky decision making in an attempt to extend the pattern of results from Studies One and Two showing general risk-sensitivity when attempting to achieve a specified need level (Money for Study One; Status for Study Two). Also, Study Three attempted to clarify the scope of the pattern of general risk-sensitivity by examining differential patterns of results based on whether the models predicted motivations to achieve need levels for money, status, or both. Results from Study Three were consistent with a general model of risk-sensitivity which operated on both monetary need levels and status need levels. This effect was additionally ubiquitous for males and females, contrary to predictions by dominance theory. The data from three studies showed support for a general model of risk-sensitivity consistent with those proposed by others (Mishra, 2010). The concept and implications of this general risk-sensitivity model are discussed, as well as future directions to understand the finer details and potential scope of this particular general risk-sensitivity model.

Master of Science / School of Family Studies and Human Services / Deborah Norris / Risk and challenge in children’s play have steadily declined over the last 30 years due to adult fears about injuries and litigation, among other factors. This societal trend is important to remedy because not only do children miss out on the numerous crucial benefits in every domain that play, and specifically risk and challenge in play, provides, but research suggests it also can lead to a host of other problems like childhood obesity, more injuries as children create their own risk and challenge in inappropriate ways, and childhood psychopathology. Data on children in care demonstrate a large number of children enrolled in pre-kindergarten programs today, therefore it is important to understand young children’s risky play in the education context and the role that early childhood practitioners play in either supporting or hindering that play. The present study used an original survey derived from the literature to examine early childhood practitioners’ beliefs and perceptions about preschool children’s risky play, practitioner’s risky play practices, and the factors that influence those beliefs and practices. The results showed that practitioners generally had more positive than negative beliefs about risky play, but only rarely or occasionally allowed risky play to occur in their classrooms or centers. A variety of both global and situational factors influenced practitioners’ decisions to allow risky play or not. Participants’ beliefs and practices were positively correlated, and beliefs and practices were both negatively correlated with influences. Numbers of years of experience in the field and education level were not found to be significant predictors of participants’ risky play beliefs and practices. These results have implications for professional development trainings as well as teacher education programs.

Studiens syfte är att bidra med kunskap om vilka förutsättningar som finns för förskollärare att bedriva utomhuspedagogik i förskolan, samt vilket lärande barnen därmed erbjuds. Studien utgick från två forskningsfrågor. För att få svar på dessa frågor användes kvalitativa semistrukturerade intervjuer där sex förskollärare på två förskolor deltog. Intervjuerna analyserades genom att vi kopplade svaren till den utvidgade didaktiska triangeln för att få en förståelse för vad som påverkar förskollärarnas arbete med utomhuspedagogik. Resultatet som framkom visar på att förskollärarna anser att utomhusvistelse är viktigt för barnens motoriska utveckling samt att den friska luften gynnar barnens hälsa. Att bedriva utomhuspedagogik anses vara att lära med hela kroppen och alla sinnen där naturmaterial används i stor utsträckning. Dock framkom det att de yngre barnen begränsas gällande utomhusvistelse på grund av sin ålder då förskollärarna ansåg det vara för riskabelt att gå till skogen eller vistas ute när förskolegården var täckt av is.

The study explored relationships among discrimination experiences, mental health (i.e., anxiety symptoms, depression symptoms), risky behaviors (i.e., suicidal ideation, illicit substance use), religiosity, and social support in LGBT adults residing in Latin America. First, multiple regression analyses were conducted to identify patterns of connections among discrimination, mental health, suicidal ideation, and illicit substance use in sexual and gender minority adults from Latin American. Harassment/Rejection discrimination, but neither Work/School nor Other discrimination predicted suicidal ideation. None of the three discrimination subscales predicted illicit substance use. Work/School discrimination predicted mental health problems (Anxiety and Depression subscales of HSCL-25 combined), while Harassment/Rejection and Other discrimination did not. Depression predicted suicidal ideation, but failed to predict illicit substance use, and anxiety symptoms alone neither uniquely predicted suicidal ideation nor illicit substance use. Subsequently, separate mediational models were conducted to examine whether depression mediated relationships between Work/School discrimination and suicidal ideation, as well as Harassment/Rejection discrimination and suicidal ideation. Depression was a significant mediator of both of these relationships. To assess whether the relationships among discrimination, depression symptoms, and suicidal ideation varied as a function of religiosity and social support, the two mediation models were expanded to six moderated mediations. Depression symptoms mediated the effects of Work/School and Harassment/Rejection discrimination on suicidal ideation when participants had low to moderate levels of social support, but not high social support. Depression symptoms also mediated the effects of Work/School discrimination on suicidal ideation when participants had low to moderate levels of both Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Religiosity, but not when participants had high levels. Finally, Depression symptoms mediated the effect of Harassment/Rejection discrimination on suicidal ideation when participants had low to moderate levels of Intrapersonal Religiosity, but not when participants had high levels; depression symptoms mediated the effect of Harassment/Rejection discrimination on suicidal ideation at all levels of Interpersonal Religiosity. Limitations to the current study included a homogenous sample with respect to country of residence, education level, and socioeconomic status, with participants primarily residing in Mexico, having high levels of education, and being primarily middle class. These drawbacks limit generalizability of study findings to sociodemographically and demographically diverse samples of LGBT adults in Latin America. Nevertheless, results from this study indicate that high, but not low or moderate levels of social support and religiosity seem to buffer LGBT adults in Latin America against discrimination, specifically by weakening links among discrimination, depression symptoms, and suicidal ideation. Clinical intervention research with LGBT adults in Latin America should focus on increasing social support networks for this population and on helping LGBT adults reconcile conflicts between religious identities and sexual or gender minority identities, as religiosity may serve as a protective factor against mental health problems generally, and suicidal ideation specifically.

Background: HIV/AIDS is one of the world’s most serious health challenges. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region most heavily affected by HIV, with 69% of the people living with HIV in the world. Côte d'Ivoire has a high HIV prevalence rate and Senegal a low prevalence rate. The main research question is whether or not the HIV risk behavior of Ivorian differs from the HIV risk behavior of Senegalese in terms of selected categorical and continuous variables. In other words, if using condoms at last sexual intercourse differs between Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal. Methods: Cross-sectional data from the Measure Demographic and Health Survey (MDHS) involving 9,686 Ivorian and 18,363 Senegalese from 2005 were used. The Pearson Chi-square test were performed to determine any significant relationship between the variables across the two countries with respect to socio-demographic and HIV risky behaviors status. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to test the significance of any association between the independent and the dependent variables (Condoms used at last sexual intercourse). Throughout all the analysis performed, a p-value of 0.05 and confidence interval of 95% were used to determine any statistical significance. Results: Logistic regression models showed that Côte d’Ivoire respondents had decrease odds of using condoms during their last sexual intercourse (OR=0.7; 95% CI 0.62 - 0.79) as compared to Senegal and the difference was statistically significant at p < 0.05. In Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal, wealth and education have been consistently found to be positively associated with condoms used at last sexual intercourse. Conclusion: HIV risk behaviors seem to be associated with condoms used and marital status. The results in our study suggest a possible relation with condoms used, HIV prevalence and polygamy in Senegal, so men use condoms less frequently with marital partners. More studies need to assess the role of polygamy in the transmission and/or acquisition of HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa. Key words: HIV/AIDS, Risky behaviors, Condoms used, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal

Tidiga vuxenlivet präglas av oprövade miljöer och situationer. Detta ställer höga krav på individens perception, anpassningsförmåga och attityd. En intensiv miljö flertalet unga vuxna kommer i kontakt med för första gången är krogen. Positiv attityd till riskfyllda beteenden där kan i förlängningen resultera i negativa hälsoeffekter. Syftet med denna enkätstudie var i huvudsak att undersöka unga vuxnas attityd till Verbal aggression, Rekreationellt berusningsdrickande, Riskfyllt sex, Fysisk aggression, Ekonomiskt riskfylld modekonsumtion, Ekonomiskt riskfylld festkonsumtion, Rekreationellt drogbruk och Riskfyllt spelande om pengar. Resultatet av de 256 personer som deltog visade genom variansanalys att män hade signifikant mer positiv attityd än kvinnor till fem av åtta riskbeteenden och att största skillnaden då kön, etnicitet och studieval analyserades i kombination förelåg mellan ickesvenska män och kvinnor på studieförberedande program. Klusteranalys visade på förekomst av högriskgrupp där män var i majoritet. Eventuella preventiva insatser bör i huvudsak lämpligen riktas mot unga vuxna män.

The United States continues to be affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and now public health is faced with new challenges in mitigating the spread of the disease. African-Americans are disproportionately affected by HIV and a further understanding about the factors that influence high risk sexual behaviors needs to be continuously examined. The aim of this study was to understand and compare the the perception of HIV risk and factors associated with risk perception in high risk adult and adolescent groups. After multivariate analysis, having multiple partners was the only predictor of an increased risk perception among adults. Among adolescents, no significant relationship was found between HIV risk indicators and having an increased HIV risk perception. Both adults and adolescents appeared to underestimate their HIV risk based on their reported risk sexual behaviors. More work is necessary to help adolescents accurately assess their risk of infection.

Risky sexual behavior (RSB) is the number one transmission method of HIV among adolescents. Reducing the rates of HIV among adolescents is of dire importance considering the rises in rates during the last several years. Minority adolescents are disproportionately affected by HIV, and a majority of the individuals living in Miami-Dade County (location of the proposed project) are minorities. RSB, externalizing disorders and cannabis use commonly occur together, such that both greater externalizing disorder symptoms and greater amounts of cannabis use have predicted engagement in more RSB. In addition, decision-making (a neurocognitive function) has found to be associated with cannabis use, externalizing disorders, and RSB. Little research has been conducted on these factors among adolescents. No study has evaluated externalizing disorders, cannabis use and decision-making together to determine the unique contribution of each factor to RSB among a sample of adolescents. The current study used the infrastructure and participants of an existing project examining how decision-making abilities and memory performance are impacted by cannabis use during adolescence. Structural equation modeling and multiple linear regression were used to analyze how externalizing disorders, cannabis use, and decision-making predict RSB. Results suggest that externalizing symptoms, cannabis use and some decision-making tasks predict RSB. Several interactions effects emerged between externalizing symptoms and decision-making tasks, cannabis use and decision-making tasks as well as externalizing symptoms and cannabis use to predict RSB. The results of the study will help future prevention and intervention efforts such that interventions can be tailored to address the areas that contribute the most to RSB among adolescents. Furthermore, cognitive skill building is one possible intervention that may be beneficial to adolescents with poorer decision-making performance.

Magister Artium (Psychology) - MA(Psych) / The effects of risky sexual behaviour (RSB) amongst adolescents are devastating in South Africa. Recent studies show that parent-child (PC) communication about RSB is associated with positive outcomes such as delayed sexual debut and increased autonomy among adolescents. There are however challenges on how to define caregivers within the South African context due the historical background of South Africa such as Apartheid and labour migration. For the purposes of this study, caregivers would be regarded as individuals who the have sole responsibility of caring for a child. The aim of this study was to explore caregiver-child communication in relation to RSB to gain an in-depth and contextualized understanding of how South African families interact, feel and experience their communication and the challenges they face, it therefore uses a qualitative approach. These aims translate into the following objectives a) exploring the process of communication i.e. how they communicate in terms of style, content, timing and frequency b) exploring the experiences of communication of RSB for both caregivers and children in terms of their thoughts and feelings as well as the challenges faced. Conducting focus group discussions and individual interviews was the method of data collection. Four focus groups (two focus groups with male adolescents and two focus groups with female adolescents) were conducted as well as three individual interviews with caregivers a total of 23 participants were used. Both groups of participants are of mixed racial backgrounds and from the Northern sub district of Cape Town. The data was analyzed by using thematic analysis. All ethical principles were adhered to. This study found mothers to be an influential source of sexual communication with their children and this communication hinged more on the health risks of early sexual debut and negative social outcomes. Caregivers highlight the barriers to communication with their adolescents which create caregiver anxiety and avoidance of sexual communication. School has also been identified as highly influential to both caregivers and adolescents especially with regards to the biological and physiological aspects of sex education. Two types ‘educational systems’ have been identified within the South African context. The impact of these systems on the quality of education and nature of the resources provided to both caregivers and learners are discussed in relation to sexual education and communication. The community and extended family of the participants are very involved in the socialisation of the adolescents in this study and often assist caregivers. Caregiver monitoring is the most utilized strategy used to ensure that adolescent whereabouts and activities are known at all times. Possible interventions such as additional strategies for caregivers to consider and communication workshops for caregivers and educators are discussed. The limitations of this study such as the limited amount of caregivers interviewed and the lack of male caregiver insight were identified and recommendations for future studies are provided.