The dominant interpretation of Roman imperialism in the provinces of Arabia and then Palaestina Tertia holds that the Empire was seeking to combat external military threats from nomads. This interpretation is based on archaeological evidence of Roman military sites forming a static defensive system linked by a road network. Recent scholarship in Jordan has questioned this interpretation. Alternative hypotheses have been advanced proposing that these sites acted as points of provincial control or were situated to maintain routes for long distance trade. It is proposed here that these interpretations of imperial control are flawed, either because of poorly realised explanatory models or improperly sampled datasets. In contrast, this study achieves an integration of textual and archaeological data through the conceptual framework of landscape. This approach stresses the spatial correlates of human behaviour and allows an alternative interpretation of imperial control to be validated. This study proposes the hypothesis that the aim of Roman imperialism in this area was to control directly imperial material resources. It does not present a historical reconstruction but demonstrates the power of a landscape approach over other models in the interpretation of Roman imperial control in southern Jordan. A rigorous review of existing textual and archaeological evidence from southern Jordan to establish military spatial and temporal development concludes that the scale of military fluctuations to support the hypothesis of a desert frontier sy~tem has been exaggerated. To test this conclusion primary data from the Dana Archaeological Survey (DAS), a three-year survey project directed by the author, was rigorously correlated with existing datasets. By strictly defining military sites and emphasising these monuments as part of wider settlement pattern, the survey demonstrated that military variability was in fact highly conservative and cannot support the hypothesis of frontier defence or provincial control. The DAS data was then used to test an alternative hypothesis that military variation is linked to the control of trade and wider socio-economic integration. This was achieved by correlating military sites with the wider settlement hierarchy through patterns of ceramic continuity. However, contrary to previous interpretations showing highly variable settlement change, the results proved that the correlation with military sites is not exact. These results were then compared with critically evaluated data from four other surveys (Wadi Hasa Survey, Southern Ghors and North Arabah Survey, Limes Arabicus survey and the Kerak Plateau Survey), which broadly supported the DAS results. This study makes clear that there is a spatial correlation between the existence of imperial estates, industrial centres and military sites. Archaeological evidence of an imperial estate in the DAS project area is presented and is contrasted with the different spatial and temporal features of a civilian estate. This imperial estate can be spatially correlated with several military sites. A review of the historical and textual evidence for imperial estates in Arabia suggests a provincial-wide pattern. This re-interpretation of the imperial landscape in southern Jordan views the location of military sites and the road network as a part of a vast integrated resourcing system of the Eastern Empire.

This thesis illustrates how Pompey’s annexations and organizing of the eastern provinces for Rome were more pragmatic than imperialistic. Greek and Eastern specialists are used in order to give a better back story than the imperialist thesis offers in its reasoning for the annexations. By adding more detail from the Greek and Eastern perspective, other dimensions are opened that shed new light upon the subject of Pompey’s eastern settlements. Through this method, the pirate campaign and the annexation of Syria are greatly developed, especially in concern to changes in culture that Pompey’s settlements forced. The culture of piracy and banditry were curbed by the eastern annexations. In Syria the Greek settlements were revived and protected from the expansion of Arab and Jewish dynasts. Considering the annexation of Pontus, a more detailed analysis on the lex Pompeia and the new taxation system is developed, which questions parts of the imperialist thesis especially in regards to role of the publicani. Graeco-Roman cultural spread is also developed in the Pontus chapter to show some of Pompey’s motives. Previous works are expanded upon and synthesized into this work, the aim being to reconcile some of the arguments, concluding with the proposition that Pompey, his efforts, and his settlements, were more pragmatic than imperialistic

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O eixo temático se desenvolveu a partir do questionamento sobre como foi o processo de reconstrução de Sagunto, que foi promovido por Roma. A região de Sagunto configura como o motivo central para o embate entre romanos e cartagineses. Todavia, com o término da Segunda Guerra Púnica (218-202 a.C.), a cidade estava destruída e uma embaixada saguntina foi enviada para Roma, a fim de solicitar ao Senado sua reorganização. O pedido aparece como sendo bem aceito pelos senadores romanos. Contudo, a partir desse momento, começa o silenciamento. A escassez de informações sobre a temática foi o primeiro problema encontrado ao longo da pesquisa. Sendo assim, foi necessário recorrer à documentação arqueológica da cidade, à numismática e à epigrafia para conseguir preencher as lacunas referentes ao tema de pesquisa. Os indícios possibilitaram não somente compreender a cidade de Sagunto e seus vários estatutos jurídicos perante Roma, como também lançar outro olhar sobre as práticas imperialistas. Ao evocar Edward Said como teórico deste trabalho, elemento de inovação da pesquisa, é possível construir a estrutura de atitudes e referências que os romanos, entre os séculos II a.C. e I d.C., aplicaram na região saguntina para consolidar o seu poder. Assim, por meio do estudo das entidades geográficas, compreende-se o espaço físico da cidade e, pelo conceito de entidades culturais, analisam-se o sistema administrativo e os colégios sacerdotais atuantes em Sagunto, no século I d.C. Logo, o imperialismo romano pode ser visto como um mecanismo que se vale de diversos elementos, os quais não se limitam à força no processo de ocupação. Em suma, política e cultura são peças centrais no processo de preservação do poder romano no espaço provincial. / The main theme of this paper evolved from questioning how was the process of reconstruction of Sagunt, which was promoted by Rome. The region of Sagunt configured as the central reason for the clash between the Romans and Carthaginians. However, with the end of the Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.), the city was destroyed and a Saguntine embassy was sent to Rome in order to ask the Senate for its reorganization. The request seemed to be well accepted by Roman senators. From that moment, silence began. The shortage of information about the subject was the first problem found during the research. Therefore, it was necessary to resort to archaeological documentation of the city, as well as to numismatics and epigraphy, in order to fill in the gaps regarding the research topic. The evidence enabled us to not understand the city of Sagunt and its various juridical statutes faced to Rome, but also look afresh at the imperialist practices. When Edward Said is evoked as theoretical reference, the aspect of innovation of this research, it is possible to build the structure of attitudes and references that Romans implemented in the Saguntine region, between the centuries II B.C. and I A.D., to consolidate their power. So, the study of geographic entities allows the understanding of the citys physical space . The concept of cultural entities enables an analyses of the administrative system and the priestly colleges operating in Sagunt in the first century A.D. Roman imperialism can be seen as a mechanism that draws on several elements, which are not limited to force in the occupation process. In short, politics and culture are central in the process of preservation of Roman power in the provincial area.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O eixo temático se desenvolveu a partir do questionamento sobre como foi o processo de reconstrução de Sagunto, que foi promovido por Roma. A região de Sagunto configura como o motivo central para o embate entre romanos e cartagineses. Todavia, com o término da Segunda Guerra Púnica (218-202 a.C.), a cidade estava destruída e uma embaixada saguntina foi enviada para Roma, a fim de solicitar ao Senado sua reorganização. O pedido aparece como sendo bem aceito pelos senadores romanos. Contudo, a partir desse momento, começa o silenciamento. A escassez de informações sobre a temática foi o primeiro problema encontrado ao longo da pesquisa. Sendo assim, foi necessário recorrer à documentação arqueológica da cidade, à numismática e à epigrafia para conseguir preencher as lacunas referentes ao tema de pesquisa. Os indícios possibilitaram não somente compreender a cidade de Sagunto e seus vários estatutos jurídicos perante Roma, como também lançar outro olhar sobre as práticas imperialistas. Ao evocar Edward Said como teórico deste trabalho, elemento de inovação da pesquisa, é possível construir a estrutura de atitudes e referências que os romanos, entre os séculos II a.C. e I d.C., aplicaram na região saguntina para consolidar o seu poder. Assim, por meio do estudo das entidades geográficas, compreende-se o espaço físico da cidade e, pelo conceito de entidades culturais, analisam-se o sistema administrativo e os colégios sacerdotais atuantes em Sagunto, no século I d.C. Logo, o imperialismo romano pode ser visto como um mecanismo que se vale de diversos elementos, os quais não se limitam à força no processo de ocupação. Em suma, política e cultura são peças centrais no processo de preservação do poder romano no espaço provincial. / The main theme of this paper evolved from questioning how was the process of reconstruction of Sagunt, which was promoted by Rome. The region of Sagunt configured as the central reason for the clash between the Romans and Carthaginians. However, with the end of the Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.), the city was destroyed and a Saguntine embassy was sent to Rome in order to ask the Senate for its reorganization. The request seemed to be well accepted by Roman senators. From that moment, silence began. The shortage of information about the subject was the first problem found during the research. Therefore, it was necessary to resort to archaeological documentation of the city, as well as to numismatics and epigraphy, in order to fill in the gaps regarding the research topic. The evidence enabled us to not understand the city of Sagunt and its various juridical statutes faced to Rome, but also look afresh at the imperialist practices. When Edward Said is evoked as theoretical reference, the aspect of innovation of this research, it is possible to build the structure of attitudes and references that Romans implemented in the Saguntine region, between the centuries II B.C. and I A.D., to consolidate their power. So, the study of geographic entities allows the understanding of the citys physical space . The concept of cultural entities enables an analyses of the administrative system and the priestly colleges operating in Sagunt in the first century A.D. Roman imperialism can be seen as a mechanism that draws on several elements, which are not limited to force in the occupation process. In short, politics and culture are central in the process of preservation of Roman power in the provincial area.

This thesis focuses on a short period of time between 50 B.C. to A.D. 14, which is marked by the increased prominence of pax as a central concept within the victory rhetoric of the period. The period is one of immense political and social upheaval and change that was to dictate the power structures of the Roman world, and one of the ways in which this change was conceptualised was through the language of peace. In this thesis I examine pax as a concept within the Roman empire and as part of an discourse on the nature of Roman imperialism. This examination considers not just the development of pax as a concept over time, but also how it was variously conceptualised and presented to different audiences and in different locations. This focuses the examination of pax on understanding what the term as an expression of Rome’s imperium meant to various peoples within the Roman empire, how it was expressed and for what reasons. As David Mattingly has recently emphasised the nature of Roman imperialism changed radically over time (‘Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire’ (2011)). This study of the different rhetorics of peace offers new insight into this changing nature. Beyond the specific examination of pax as a part of imperial discourse within the late Republic and early Principate, this study raises questions about the way we think about concepts in the ancient world. Rather than talking about a single development or evolution over time, we should rather consider concepts as constantly active and changing in time. Our view of the ancient world and the way in which it was conceptualised should not be a static one, but one where the meaning and value of words give us insights into how individuals and communities expressed and explained changing social and political conditions.

This research examines how, when and why the Romans assigned and defined the tasks of preparing and commanding fleets during the Republic. In doing so, it brings new evidence to bear on the wider debates about the nature of the prouincia and the institutional and administrative development of the Roman empire. The communis opinio is that a prouincia originally represented a functional “sphere of operation” that was allotted or assigned to a magistrate and that it only later developed a geographical meaning with territorial connotations through the process of “provincialisation.” This research challenges that view through an analysis of the evidence for the definition, assignment and practical use of the prouincia classis and other prouinciae connected with the command of fleets. Drawing upon and analysing the lists of administrative arrangements to be found in the “annalistic” sections of the surviving books of Livy’s History, it argues that prouinciae were defined in specific geographical and functional terms long before the development of permanent territorial empire. This offers a new perspective which points to and elucidates the flexible use of the prouincia as a means of separating magistrates and promagistrates in space or by function in space. It argues that the rationale for this was to limit conflicts between commanders over command and triumphal rights. By combining evidence from a wide range of sources after the loss of Livy’s History from 167, the research shows that the above rationale for demarcating prouinciae still applied in the first century B.C. However, it also demonstrates that there were significant changes with the assignment of vast Mediterranean-wide naval prouinciae in the first half of the first century B.C. It argues that the definition of these prouinciae was made possible by the development of a singular collective Mediterranean-wide ora maritima, which was brought about by the Romans’ increasing “acknowledgement of empire.” The negative political and institutional implications of these developments are also assessed. Finally, in discussing the above, this research also provides new insights into the role and auctoritas of the Senate, the function and freedom of magistrates, and the Romans’ conceptualisation of their empire.

La période entre 338 et 290 av. J.-C. fut un tournant pour Rome, car elle vit la soumission des Latins et la défaite des Samnites, ce qui permit à l’Urbs de devenir la première puissance italique. On assista donc à l’avènement d’un impérialisme romain. Se pose alors la question de l’idéologie d’État de cette Rome en transition. Comme cette expansion fut accompagnée par la construction, à Rome, de dix nouveaux temples, souvent dédiés à des divinités nouvelles, et que toute divinité exprimait une idéologie, il nous a semblé possible de reconstituer, dans ses grands traits, cette idéologie d’État grâce aux nouvelles divinités et leurs sanctuaires. Nous avons donc choisi d’analyser deux nouveaux temples : celui de Quirinus et celui de Victoria. Le choix de Quirinus s’explique par le fait que ce dieu avait, on l’a montré, déjà été assimilé à Romulus ; quant à Victoria, on l’a choisie pour trois raisons : elle était une déesse de la victoire ; son temple fut élevé au-Dessus du Lupercal, au cœur même de la « Rome de Romulus » ; grâce aux fouilles de P. Pensabene, on peut reconstituer son sanctuaire. Puis, on a analysé les deux temples et leurs divinités à travers les concepts (cadre social de la mémoire, mémoire collective) issus de la sociologie de M. Halbwachs. On a ainsi constaté qu’à travers ces temples, l’élite dirigeante avait diffusé auprès du peuple une nouvelle identité collective affirmant le caractère exceptionnel de Rome et contenant l’idée d’une expansion illimitée de l’Urbs. Cette création d’une identité romaine impérialiste se fondant sur Romulus et la religion en général, on peut l’interpréter comme la construction d’un destin collectif pour Rome. / The period between 338 and 290 B.C. saw a sea change for Rome, because the subjugation of the Latins and the defeat of the Samnites allowed her to become the main italic power, and witnessed the advent of a roman imperialism. In this context arises the problem of the state ideology of this Rome in transition. As this expansion was accompanied by the construction of ten new temples in Rome, frequently consecrated to new deities, each of them expressing a specific ideology, we thought it possible to reconstruct the new state ideology through an analysis of the deities and shrines in question. So, for our study, we chose two new temples, those of Quirinus and of Victoria. Quirinus because of his assimilation to Romulus, Victoria because she was a deity of victory; her shrine was built above the Lupercal, at the heart of the “Rome of Romulus”; and because her temple can be reconstructed thanks to the excavations of P. Pensabene. Then we analyzed the two temples and their godheads through concepts (social frame of memory; collective memory) taken from the sociology of M. Halbwachs. In this way we came to the conclusion that, through these two shrines, the ruling élite had tried to communicate to the common people a new collective identity promoting the exceptionality of Rome and her unlimited powers of expansion. This construction of an imperialistic roman identity being based on Romulus and the religion in general, one can interpret it as construction of a collective destiny for Rome.