Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / Solos formados por sedimentos em ambientes de planÃcie apresentam caracterÃsticas genÃticas distintas quanto ao material de origem, podendo ser compostos basicamente por sedimentos minerais e orgÃnicos. O primeiro à formado a partir do intemperismo das rochas, e as propriedades quÃmicas, fÃsicas e mineralÃgicas sÃo herdadas do material que lhe deram origem. Jà os sedimentos orgÃnicos sÃo influenciados pelo tipo de vegetaÃÃo predominante na paisagem, e o aporte de material orgÃnico em condiÃÃo de saturaÃÃo de Ãgua, que favorece o acÃmulo e o espessamento das camadas de sedimentos orgÃnicos, podendo levar à gÃnese dos solos orgÃnicos. Este estudo teve por objetivo avaliar as caracterÃsticas morfolÃgicas, fÃsicas e quÃmicas de seis perfis de solos orgÃnicos desenvolvidos na regiÃo litorÃnea dos Estados do CearÃ, Rio Grande do Norte e ParaÃba; e avaliar os mesmos atributos e as caracterÃsticas mineralÃgicas e micromorfolÃgicas de quatro perfis de solos originados de sedimentos aluviais do baixo curso da Bacia do rio Acaraà - CE. Foram avaliadas propriedades tais como: cor, densidade, textura, teores de fibras, grau de decomposiÃÃo da matÃria orgÃnica, teores de C, matÃria orgÃnica, N, P e micronutrientes, soma de bases, valor T e V, fraÃÃes hÃmicas, grau de repelÃncia à Ãgua, condutividade elÃtrica, sais solÃveis, difratometria de raio-X, dentre outras. Para os Organossolos, foi verificado que os teores de C estabeleceram correlaÃÃes positivas com a densidade do solo, com a subsidÃncia, acidez potencial, com os teores de N e com a hidrofobicidade, alÃm de influenciar na CTC e no teor de H+ proveniente dos Ãcidos orgÃnicos. Os diferentes mÃtodos para a determinaÃÃo dos teores de carbono orgÃnico apresentaram correlaÃÃo positiva entre si. Os teores de C da fraÃÃo humina foram mais elevados devido à presenÃa de fibras nesta fraÃÃo, enquanto que os teores de Ãcidos fÃlvicos foram os menores em relaÃÃo aos teores de Ãcidos hÃmicos, indicando maior estabilidade dos compostos orgÃnicos presentes nestes solos. Com relaÃÃo aos solos de sedimentos aluviais, foram observados elevados teores de sais solÃveis, conferindo-lhes carÃter salino e sÃdico. Isso se deve à influÃncia marinha e do lenÃol freÃtico elevado, alÃm da presenÃa de minerais intemperizÃveis. Na descriÃÃo micromorfolÃgica foram verificados alguns aspectos relacionados à gÃnese desses solos, tais como a iluviaÃÃo de argila em profundidade, a origem alÃctone do material de origem e a alteraÃÃo in situ desses sedimentos aluviais. A geomorfologia foi o principal fator na maior expressÃo dos processos pedogenÃticos na paisagem, e a posiÃÃo em que os solos se encontram à um forte indicativo de sua fragilidade ambiental. / Soils formed by sediments in lowland environments have distinct genetic characteristics according to the parent material, which can be basically composed of mineral and organic sediments. The first is formed from the weathering of rocks, and the chemical, physical and mineralogical properties are inherited from the source material. The organic sediments are influenced by the type of vegetation dominant in the landscape, and the addition of organic material under water saturation conditions, that favors the accumulation and thickening of organic sediment layers, which can lead to the genesis of organic soils. This study aimed to evaluate the morphological, physical and chemical properties of six organic soil profiles developed in the coastal region of the States of CearÃ, Rio Grande do Norte and ParaÃba; besides these attributes and the mineralogical and micromorphological characteristics of four soil profiles from alluvial sediments in the lower course of Acaraà river Basin - CE. The properties evaluated were: color, density, texture, fiber content, degree of decomposition of organic matter, C content, organic matter, N, P and micronutrients, sum of bases, T and V value, humic fractions, degree of water repellency, electrical conductivity, soluble salts, X-ray diffraction, among others. For the Histosols, it was found a positive correlation of the C levels with the soil density, with subsidence, potential acidity, N content and hydrophobicity; as well as influencing the CTC and the content of H+ from the organic acids. The different methods for measuring organic carbon were positively correlated with each other. The C content of humin fraction were higher due to the presence of fibers in this fraction, while the fulvic acid contents were lower compared to the humic acids, indicating increased stability of organic compounds present in these soils. With respect to the soils from alluvial sediments, there were observed high levels of soluble salts, conferring them the saline and sodic characters. This is due to the marine influence and the high water table, besides the presence of weatherable minerals. The micromorphological description showed some aspects related to the soil genesis, such as clay illuviation in depth, the allochthonous origin of the parent material and in situ alteration of the alluvial sediments. The geomorphology was the main factor in the greatest expression of pedogenetic processes in the landscape, and the position where the soils are located is a strong indicator of their environmental fragility.

O uso da irrigação em cafeeiro é uma tecnologia que vem se consolidando e mostrando-se economicamente viável ao longo dos tempos, trazendo junto com ela a técnica da fertirrigação. Desta forma, o presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a influência de formas de aplicação e fontes de fertilizantes sobre a condutividade elétrica e pH da solução do solo, bem como no desenvolvimento e produção do café conilon irrigado por gotejamento. O trabalho foi desenvolvido em São Gabriel da Palha, Espírito Santo, utilizando o clone 12V da variedade INCAPER 8142. O experimento foi delineado em blocos ao acaso (DBC) com seis tratamentos e quatro blocos. Os tratamentos adotados foram: T1 - Controle - adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via solo nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio; T2 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via solo nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio de liberação controlada; T3 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio; T4 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação nas fontes nitrato de amônio e sulfato de potássio; T5 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação nas fontes nitrato de amônio e nitrato de potássio; T6 - Adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via solo nas fontes ureia e cloreto de potássio de liberação controlada no período de outubro a março (período chuvoso) e adubação nitrogenada e potássica aplicada via fertirrigação, nas fontes nitrato de amônio e sulfato de potássio no período de abril a setembro (período seco). Foi monitorado o pH e condutividade elétrica da solução do solo, avaliações biométricas das plantas tais como altura, comprimento do primeiro ramo plagiotrópico e número de nós no primeiro ramo plagiotrópico, além da produção por planta e estimativa de produtividade. Os tratamentos T1 e T3 que utilizaram ureia e cloreto de potássio e o T4 - nitrato de amônio e sulfato de potássio disponibilizaram maiores quantidade de nitrogênio na forma amoniacal, causando maior acidificação do bulbo. Em contrapartida os tratamentos T2, T5 e T6 apresentaram menor acidificação, com diferença estatística significativa na variação do pH nas duas profundidades analisadas a partir de 18 meses da aplicação dos tratamentos. Nos tratamentos T2 e T6 observou-se menor salinidade inicial na avaliação aos 90 dias após o plantio através da leitura da condutividade elétrica da solução do solo. Para as avaliações biométricas, os tratamentos T2, T4, T5 e T6 diferiram estatisticamente dos tratamentos T1 e T3, influenciando positivamente à altura de plantas, comprimento e número de nós no primeiro ramo plagiotrópico. / Fertigation is a widespread technology in coffee cultivation; however, with the insertion of new fertilizers technologies, new studies are required. This study aims to evaluate the influence of application types and fertilizers sources on the electrical conductivity and pH of the soil solution in the wet bulb as well its influence in the development and production of drip irrigated conilon coffee. The study was conducted in São Gabriel da Palha, Espírito Santo (Brazil), using 12V clone variety INCAPER 8142. The experiment was designed in randomized blocks (DBC) with six treatments and four blocks. The adopted treatments were: T1 - Control / nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied via soil: urea and potassium chloride; T2 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied via soil : urea and potassium chloride with release controlled; T3 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation: urea and potassium chloride; T4 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation: ammonium nitrate and potassium sulfate; T5 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation: ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate; T6 - Nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied via soil: urea and potassium chloride with controlled release in the period from October to March (rainy season) and nitrogen and potassium fertilization applied by fertigation, ammonium nitrate and potassium sulphate in the period from April to September (dry season). The biometric evaluations of the plants were: height, length of the first branch and number of nodes in the first plagiotrophycal in addition to production per plant and productivity estimate. T1 and T3 treatments using immediate solubility of urea and T4 - ammonium nitrate have provided large amount of nitrogen in the ammonium form, causing increased acidification in the bulb. In contrast the T2, T5 and T6 treatments had lower acidification, with statistically significant differences in the pH variation in two depths analyzed from 18 months of treatment application. In treatments T2 and T6 it was observed lower initial salinity in the evaluation at 90 days after planting through the EC reading. To biometric assessments, treatments T2, T4, T5 and T6 differ statistically from T1 and T3, influencing plant height, length and number of nodes in the first plagiotrophycal.

O reúso de efluentes de esgotos domésticos na irrigação de culturas representa uma alternativa adequada na gestão dos recursos hídricos devido ao fornecimento de nutrientes e água em quantidades suficientes para o desenvolvimento das culturas, porém, também pode introduz impactos negativos ao solo, em parte, potencializados pela irrigação contínua ao longo do tempo. O maior efeito está relacionado com o aumento da salinidade e sodicidade. Uma alternativa para mitigar este impacto, é o uso de espécies vegetais extratoras e acumuladoras de sais que estão presentes no solo. Neste trabalho avaliaram-se as alterações nas propriedades químicas de um planossolo (disposto em 36 vasos, 18 isolados da chuva e dos ventos e 18 expostos a eventos climáticos) irrigado durante dois meses (junho-julho) com efluente de esgoto tratado por um reator UASB + lagoa de polimento. Posteriormente, avaliou-se o desempenho da espécie halófita Atriplex nummularia na remoção de sais e cátions acumulados no substrato (agosto 2008 – fevereiro 2009), monitorando o comportamento da condutividade elétrica, sódio, potássio, cálcio, magnésio e pH (no extrato do solo) e pH, condutividade elétrica e sódio trocável no percolado dos vasos. Durante a fitorremediação, foram aplicados além do efluente utilizado na etapa anterior (tratamento 3), efluente de um sistema UASB (tratamento 2) e água potável (tratamento 1). Também foi avaliado o comportamento das características físicas do solo mediante a determinação das curvas de retenção de água no inicio e final do experimento. A irrigação com o efluente do sistema UASB + lagoa de polimento incrementou significativamente o teor de sódio ao mesmo tempo em que diminuiu as concentrações de cálcio e magnésio; incrementando em até 30 % o percentual de sódio trocável (PST), indicando a sodificação da camada superficial (0-20 cm) dos substratos. O pH e a condutividade elétrica (indicadores da salinidade do solo quando atingem valores inferiores a 8,5 e superiores a 4 dS m-1, respectivamente) aumentaram sem atingir valores críticos. As condições de maior acumulação de sais e cátions apresentaram-se nos vasos que não estiveram expostos às variáveis climáticas. Com respeito à etapa de fitorremediação, as eficiências na remoção de sódio estiveram acima de 85% (em ausência de chuva) e fora da estufa valores entre 30 – 45% para os tratamentos 2 e 3 e acima de 80% para o tratamento 1. Resultados que mostram o melhor desenvolvimento da planta na ausência de chuvas e ventos fortes. Já os efeitos sobre as características físicas das amostras não foram estatisticamente significativos (α = 0.01), provavelmente pelo curto tempo de duração do experimento. Os resultados em geral, evidenciaram o potencial da Atriplex nummularia na fitorremediação de solos irrigados com efluentes de esgotos tratados. / Wastewater reuse in crops irrigation represents a good alternative in the water resources management because it supplies nutrients and water in sufficient amount to guarantee the growing of cultures, but also can affects negatively the soil due to the constant irrigation along time. The worst effect is related to the increase of the soil salinity and sodium content. An option to mitigate this effect is to use varieties of vegetable species that can extract or accumulate salt. This study researched the changes in the chemical properties of a Plano soil (distributed in 36 pots, 18 protected of rains and winds and 18 exposed them), irrigated over two months (June – July) with secondary treated wastewater from an anaerobic reactor/maturation pond. Besides that, it was studied the performance of the halophyte Atriplex nummularia in removing salts and cations accumulated in the soil (August 2008 – February 2009), by measuring from the soil extract samples: the behavior of electrical conductivity, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and pH; and from the pots leachate: pH, electrical conductivity and exchangeable sodium. During the phytoremediation process, besides the wastewater effluent used in the first stage (treatment 3), there were also applied wastewater effluent from an UASB reactor (treatment 2) and potable water (treatment 1). Also, it was studied the behavior of soil´s physicals characteristic measuring water retention curves at the beginning and end of the experiment. Irrigation with the secondary treated wastewater from an anaerobic reactor/maturation pond increased significantly soil’s sodium concentration, and simultaneously, it decreased calcium and magnesium concentrations in the soil; augmenting the Exchangeable Sodium Percentages (ESP), thus indicating the sodification of soil superficial layer (0 – 20 cm). The values of pH and electrical conductivity (soil salinity indicators when reaching values below 8,5 and over 4 dS m-1, respectively) increased, but did not reached critical values. The pots not exposed to environmental conditions presented greater salts and cations concentrations accumulated on top soil. Phytoremediation stage efficiencies were higher than 85% (in the absence of rain) and between 30 and 45% (in the presence of rain) for applied treatments 2 and 3, respectively; and more than 80% for the applied treatment 1. These results showed that the plant performance is better in the absence of rain and strong winds. The changes on the physical characteristics were statistically non-significant (α = 0.01), probably because of the short duration of the experiment. The results in general, showed the potential of the Atriplex nummularia in phytoremediation processes of wastewater-irrigated soils.

Soil salinization and sodification are amongst the main land degradation processes. This evergrowing issue reaches worldwide proportions and takes place mostly in arid and semiarid regions of the world, including the Brazilian northeast and the state of Sergipe. It is caused mostly by anthropic activities such as inadequately irrigated agriculture, soil preparation and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers, in combination with weather conditions and soil characteristics. These phenomena have led to the decrease in agricultural productivity, increased soil treatment coss and land abandonment. Solutions to this problem demand integrated approaches that combine knowledge in agricultural, environmental, social and economic sciences. The goal of this work is to investigate predisposing conditions and the presence of soil salinization processes, identifying its inception and manifestation elements on the land reform settlement project Jacaré-Curituba, as well as to test the development of the plant Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty in the settlement soil, analyzing salty soil´s potential for phytoremediation. The study was guided by theoretical frameworks that address the causes, consequences, control and mitigation options for the processes of soil salinization; field research for conduction of interviews; collection and analysis of different soils; and experiments with ten genotypes of the Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Robertyspecies in greenhouse soils with three different salinization levels. The study concludes by identifying, on the settlement project, the existence of salty soil due to pedoclimatic conditions and the adoption of agricultural techniques that foster the salinization process. On the greenhouse experiment there were significant differences of plant development when exposed to increased soil salinity and sodicity. The level of soil salts extraction was low, however, due to the salinity and sodicity tolerance showed by the plant, it was identified promising potential of vetiver for phytoremediation of saline soils by mechanisms related to improving the conditions of soil by growing roots and leaves. / A salinização e sodificação dos solos estão entre os principais processos de degradação da terra. O problema é crescente e tem extensão global, ocorrendo majoritariamente em regiões áridas e semiáridas do mundo, inclusive no Nordeste brasileiro e no estado de Sergipe. São causados em grande parte por atividades antrópicas, a exemplo da agricultura praticada com técnicas inadequadas de irrigação, de preparo de solo e de aplicação indiscriminada de adubos químicos, aliadas a condições predisponentes do clima e das características do solo. Têm causado perda de produtividade agrícola, custos elevados de tratamento e abandono da terra. A solução do problema exige abordagens integradas que envolvem conhecimentos das ciências agronômicas, ambientais, sociais e econômicas. O objetivo deste trabalho é levantar as condições predisponentes e a existência do processo de salinização de solo, identificando sua concepção e forma de ocorrência no assentamento de reforma agrária Jacaré-Curituba e testar, em casa de vegetação, o desenvolvimento da planta Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty, em solos provenientes deste assentamento, que apresentam, em condição de campo, níveis diferentes de salinidade advindas das atividades agrícolas, avaliando seu potencial de fitorremediação de solos salinizados. O estudo foi pautado em referenciais teóricos que abordam as causas, consequências, formas de controle e remediação dos processos de salinização dos solos; em pesquisa de campo com realização de entrevistas; coleta e análise de solos; e experimentos com dez acessos da espécie Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty em solo com três níveis diferentes de salinização, em casa de vegetação. Identificou-se no assentamento Jacaré-Curituba, a existência de processo de salinização do solo devido a uma associação de condições naturais predisponentes e adoção de práticas agrícolas contribuintes. No experimento em casa de vegetação, o desenvolvimento do vetiver foi afetado negativamente quando exposto a um aumento da salinidade e sodicidade do solo. O nível de extração de sais do solo foi baixo, no entanto, devido à tolerância à salinidade e sodicidade apresentada pela planta, foi identificado potencial promissor do vetiver para fitorremediação de solos salinizados através de outros mecanismos relacionados à melhoria das condições de solo ocasionada pela presença das folhas e principalmente das raízes.

A conceptual end use model for residential water demand and return flow is presented in this thesis. The model requires a unique description of a single residential stand in terms of all its end-uses. The end-uses include toilet flushing, bathing and showering, garden watering, leaks, et cetera. Various parameters describe each of the end-uses. The model predicts five components relating to water demand and wastewater flow at a residence: indoor water demand, outdoor water demand, hot water demand, wastewater flow volume and concentration of solutes in the wastewater. Twelve monthly results are calculated, for each of the five components, to provide a typical seasonal pattern as well as an annual value. The large number of input parameters in an end-use model allows for powerful and detailed analysis. The parameters required to populate the model are discussed and guideline values are presented. The end-use model is used to conduct a sensitivity analysis of each independent parameter for each of the five individual model components. The elasticity and sensitivity is determined at a base point with respect to each parameter for all five results. A research significance index is also devised to integrate the elasticity and availability of data for each parameter. The result is a prioritised list of the most critical parameters for each of the five components, which are the ones that should receive the focus for future study and data recording. The parameters are combined to obtain a list of the overall most important parameters in the model for all components combined, and based on a combination of the elasticity-based rank and the sensitivity based rank. The five most important parameters are the household size, toilet flush frequency, toilet flush volume, the washing machine event frequency and the volume of leaks on a stand. The practical application of the model is illustrated. The researchers first apply the model to mimic a few commonly accepted characteristics of water demand. The effectiveness of some specific water demand management measures are evaluated by adjusting selected model parameters. The measures include xeriscaping, the installation of dual-flush toilets, low-flow showerheads, pool ownership and pool cover use. The model also enables practitioners to obtain an insight into the water use habits of homeowners. The model forms the basis for further research work in the field. Its relatively simple structure and realistic data requirement encourages its integration into existing commercially available software suites for water and sewer system analysis and -management in the civil engineering industry in South Africa, as well as abroad. / Prof. J. Haarhoff

The impact of long term management strategies of irrigation with saline water in semi-arid region of Gordonia, South Africa is the highest interest to optimize water consumption, soil conservation, and crop yield for sustainable water allocations to human food production and ecosystem without irreversible damages to soil and water body. An integrated ecosystem assimilation, in shape of soil-water storage model based on physical approach for 30-year simulation run defined in form of digital ecosystem modelling with help of CoupModel tool to assemble together the most important underlying processes of soil hydraulics, irrigation demands, leaching fraction, evapotranspiration, salt transport. Two scenarios of water management strategy; surface as traditional and drip as subsurface irrigation considered to apply water and salt into the ecosystem model. Gaining high food production for human with respect to ecosystem sustainability, in each water management scenario studied by evaluating general and detailed result from water and salt balance for the entire simulation period plus long term nitrogen and carbon turnover as crop yield indicator. Non-productive water losses, salt accumulation in root zone, carbon and nitrogen turnover, salt transport to aquifer via deep percolation observed thoroughly. Decline in crop yield due to water and salt stress, conducted by monitoring biomass production with respect to water consumption and soil osmotic pressure in root zone. Drip scenario had better functionality to perform less water wastage by decreasing soil evaporation as non-productive water loss almost 40 %, however productive water consumption decreased 20 % due to insufficient leaching fraction and also salt accumulation increased in root zone. Precipitation had a significant role to accomplish leaching deficiency and removing salt from root zone. Salt accumulation flushed out from root zone by more leaching, though resulting more water wastage and more possibility of salinization threatening beneath aquifer. Ecosystem in terms of soil-water and plant responding differently facing salinity in different water management practices and salt as source of pollution could either stabilized in soil by accumulating in root zone causing anthropogenic soil desertification or percolate to beneath aquifer resulting aquifer salinization.

This dissertation thesis is focus on using toxicity tests with testing organism - terrestrial isopod Porcellio scaber. This organism is use for toxicity assessment of selected anorganic compunds which could contaminate terrestrial ecosystem. This organism was selected for several reasons - sophisticated test methodology; well known biology of these animals and their ecological relevance. Besides classical endpoints such as mortality, change in mass of test specimens and the effect of the presence and concentration of contaminants onto food consumption; we monitored changes in the morphometric characteristics at the level of tissues and cells, the cytotoxicity and possibly bioaccumulation in various parts of the body of the organism. Selected test substance in this thesis were nanoparticles and inorganic salts. Wherein for chosen gold nanoparticles was carried out a complete study presents several levels of organization of living matter (organism, tissue, cell). For selected salts compound, this study was carried out on the behavior of organisms and classical endpoints.

No description available.

No description available.

Inland freshwater salinity is rising worldwide and threatens the quality of our water resources, a phenomenon called the freshwater salinization syndrome (FSS). Simultaneously, the practice of indirect potable reuse (IPR) that augments critical water supplies with treated wastewater to enhance water security presents complexities in water quality management. This dissertation explores the complex interplay between FSS and IPR in the Occoquan Reservoir, an important drinking-water source in the Mid-Atlantic United States, within its diverse environmental, social and political contexts. Using extensive data collected over 25 years, this research quantifies contributions of multiple salinity sources to the rising concentration of sodium (a major ion associated with the FSS) in the reservoir and the finished drinking water. These sources encompass two rapidly urbanizing watersheds, a sophisticated water reclamation facility and the drinking water treatment utility. The novel application of unsteady transit time theory reveals that stream salinization can be linked to watershed salt sources using stream water age as a master variable and provides a real-time prediction model for sodium concentration in the reservoir. These results identify substantial opportunities to mitigate sodium pollution and help set the stage for stakeholder-driven bottom-up management by improving the predictability of system dynamics, enhancing knowledge of this social-ecological system and supporting the development of collective action rules. / Doctor of Philosophy / The global rise in freshwater salinity, termed as the freshwater salinization syndrome (FSS), poses a significant threat to water quality in our freshwater resources. The practice of indirect potable reuse (IPR), which involves reusing treated wastewater to supplement and secure our water supplies presents significant challenges in managing water quality. This dissertation delves into the intricate relationship between FSS and IPR, focusing on the Occoquan Reservoir-a vital drinking water source in the Mid-Atlantic United States-within its multifaceted environmental, social, and political contexts. This study uncovers the contributions of various sources of salinity to rising sodium ion concentrations (a key FSS-associated ion) in the reservoir and in finished drinking water. Sodium ions are contributed by road salts, chemicals used in water and wastewater treatment, commercial and industrial discharges, household products (e.g., laundry detergents) and human excretion. An innovative approach of examining the age of water in the stream and in the reservoir outflow enables us to trace origins of salinity within the watershed and predict the concentration of sodium ions in the reservoir, respectively. These findings reveal promising avenues for effectively addressing sodium pollution at this site. Furthermore, this research underscores the significance of convergence research, bringing diverse stakeholders together to develop collaborative strategies to manage freshwater salinization using a bottom-up approach.