A leitura e a escrita são importantes ferramentas para ajudar os alunos a melhor compreenderem o mundo ao seu redor. É preciso conhecer, ler, analisar e reproduzir modelos de qualidade para que seja possível escrever textos de forma mais competente. Neste sentido, as propostas de escrita podem incentivar a paráfrase de bons modelos com a finalidade de auxiliar os alunos a se comunicarem melhor, até que se constituam como autores mais autônomos. Mas, até que ponto o contato com os modelos pode afetar a liberdade de criação? É possível copiar um modelo e construir a própria autonomia ao mesmo tempo? Para responder a estas questões, George Steiner, em seu livro Gramáticas da criação, defende a idéia de que estamos a todo o momento imitando, ou melhor, repetindo modelos, ações e idéias de outros. De um modo geral, a criação estaria muito mais próxima da paráfrase do que daquilo que é visto como novo, como original. Bakhtin também disserta sobre o quanto somos ecos de outras vozes que nos cercam, repetindo idéias que não são só nossas, mas que circulam socialmente e influenciam nosso modo de pensar e de agir; interações essas que se estabelecem entre as pessoas e que nos permitem avançar em nossos conhecimentos, de acordo com a teoria sócio-cultural desenvolvida por Vygotsky. Neste sentido, é possível levantar algumas idéias sobre o papel da escola e também dos livros didáticos nesse processo de criação, ou seja, no desenvolvimento da autoria dos alunos. Neste estudo, pretende-se analisar o modo como se relacionam cópia, reprodução, paráfrase e autoria no processo de construção da autonomia dos alunos a partir das metodologias presentes nas atividades de escrita propostas nos livros didáticos. Foram analisadas seis obras de grande adoção nas escolas e que são aprovadas pelo Programa Nacional do Livro Didático. Em todas elas observou-se a presença de boas estratégias, cujo principal objetivo era apresentar um bom modelo para que o aluno conseguisse ressignificá-lo e, a partir dele, desenvolver o seu próprio texto. Partiu-se da concepção de que a criação humana é sempre mediada por algo que já existe e que não se trata de uma simples repetição: há trabalho dos sujeitos nisso, pois o autor é na verdade um aumentador, ele aumenta o mundo a partir de algo que já existe. Podemos considerar, portanto, que a idéia de criatividade relaciona-se, na verdade, com a idéia de transformação da realidade e que esse processo está presente nos materiais didáticos atuais, enquanto uma boa estratégia para formar escritores mais competentes. / Reading and writing are important tools that can be used by students to enhance their understanding about the world and the environment around them. The ability of writing requires prior knowledge of certain quality standards that must be properly evaluated and reproduced if one wishes to accomplish a good quality text. Thus, the best way to enhance a student´s writing ability might be through writing propositions that stimulate the paraphrases of good text models, aiming at helping their communications skills, until the autonomy in writing is fully developed. In this case, however, a few important points must be considered: can such text models affect the student´s creativity? Is it possible for a student to copy/comply to a model text and, yet, develop his/her own autonomy at the same time? To answer such questions, George Steiner, in his book Grammars of Creation, points that we are always copying, or repeating models, actions or ideas learned from other people. In a general sense, creation would be much closer to paraphrases than from what is understood as original. Bakhtin agrees with this idea, pointing that we can be echoes from other voices around us, repeating ideas that are not just ours, but belong to our social environment and influence our thoughts and actions. This is one of the major driving forces to the development of our knowledge, according to Vigotsy´s Social-cultural Theory. Thus, it is possible to draw a few ideas concerning the role(s) that must be played by the school and the textbooks in the process of developing the students as efficient and autonomous authors of written texts. It is necessary to teach students to find new meanings to the model texts, so they can go beyond copying and reproducing other people´s texts, and start creating upon such new ideas, until their writing develops into true authorship. The evaluation of writing propositions contained in school textbooks might be a good way to determine how it is possible to help students to develop this process. In this work, we evaluated the interplay among copy, reproduction, paraphrases and authorship during students development as independent writers. We considered the methodologies inherent to the writing propositions found in six different school textbooks all of them are widely used in schools across the country and have been approved by the Programa Nacional do Livro Didático. All textbooks contained appropriate exercises, in which the main objective was to force students to define new meanings to model texts, developing these new ideas into an original text. Our main concept is that human creation, although often dependent on previously conceived models, cannot be considered a simple act of repetition; there is genuine input from the author, which can be viewed as an enhancer in this process, as he/she adds upon pre-existing models to develop original ideas. In this sense, creativity is directly associated with a process of transformation of the current reality and most school textbooks can be used to develop strategies to form competent writers.

This thesis reports a computational corpus study of textbooks used in high school science programs in Queensland, Australia. The central research issues concern: 1. how textbook authors deploy linguistic resources in representing scientific knowledge; 2. whether or not authors deploy linguistic resources differently across the disciplines of science, and for younger and older readers; and, 3. whether or not variation in the deployment of linguistic resources can be interpreted in terms of the processes and mechanisms for establishing reliable and valid scientific knowledge. The thesis first summarises theoretical debates concerning the nature and teaching of science. An extended discussion, in the form of a case study of Galileo's work on motion, is presented, along with examples of how the 'Galileo story' has been revised and modified into popular and professional / educational imagination. This discussion thaws out critical points about the relationships between science as an observational and empirical activity and science as an abstract and intellectual activity. This is contrasted with educational constructivist accounts of learning and pedagogy, and how constructivist pedagogy is influenced by constructivist accounts of the doing of science. The data collection and analysis methods are then described in detail. A variety of tagging and marking techniques relating to vocabulary, logical formation and connection words, and grammatical formations are used. These provide the bases for a variety of frequency and collocational analyses, which, in turn, feed into a series of multivariate analyses. After presenting a descriptive overview of the corpus of textbooks, the results are reported in four chapters. Each chapter considers one linguistic resource in turn: vocabulary diversity, lexical organisation, words used to establish logical and structural formations, and grammatical organisation. These chapters show that there is systematic variation in authors deployment of linguistic resources, and that variation with respect to one linguistic resource is associated with variation with respect to the others. In particular, when scientific knowledge is presented through elaboration, persuasion, and description, there is little or no underlying structure to the phenomena being discussed, or there are few or no underlying concepts to which authors can return as their discussions progress. Alternatively, when scientific knowledge is presented in terms of rules, statements, procedures, and arrangements, the content of a topic is structured around a small number of underlying and uni~ing concepts. The contrast is between a loosely structured science that is descriptive, factual and observational, and a highly structured science that is for the most part theoretical. Furthermore, authors selectivity in their deployment of linguistic resources is associated with the major scientific disciplines. The suggestion is that the contents of Biology and Geology, with only a loose structure or no structure to the contents underlying concepts, are presented through elaboration, persuasion, and description, whereas the contents of Physics and Chemistry, structured around a small number of underlying and uni~ing concepts, are presented in terms of rules, statements, procedures, and arrangements. The thesis concludes that what is missing in textbook accounts that embody naive empiricism is the discernment evident in Galileos work: when, how and with what cost to 'simplify' the experiential world, and how to add back to theoretical accounts the complexities of the experiential world. It is an understanding of these processes and the ways in which they can be displayed and developed in classrooms that could better inform the preparation of science teachers as well as laying a stronger base for high school programs.

A leitura e a escrita são importantes ferramentas para ajudar os alunos a melhor compreenderem o mundo ao seu redor. É preciso conhecer, ler, analisar e reproduzir modelos de qualidade para que seja possível escrever textos de forma mais competente. Neste sentido, as propostas de escrita podem incentivar a paráfrase de bons modelos com a finalidade de auxiliar os alunos a se comunicarem melhor, até que se constituam como autores mais autônomos. Mas, até que ponto o contato com os modelos pode afetar a liberdade de criação? É possível copiar um modelo e construir a própria autonomia ao mesmo tempo? Para responder a estas questões, George Steiner, em seu livro Gramáticas da criação, defende a idéia de que estamos a todo o momento imitando, ou melhor, repetindo modelos, ações e idéias de outros. De um modo geral, a criação estaria muito mais próxima da paráfrase do que daquilo que é visto como novo, como original. Bakhtin também disserta sobre o quanto somos ecos de outras vozes que nos cercam, repetindo idéias que não são só nossas, mas que circulam socialmente e influenciam nosso modo de pensar e de agir; interações essas que se estabelecem entre as pessoas e que nos permitem avançar em nossos conhecimentos, de acordo com a teoria sócio-cultural desenvolvida por Vygotsky. Neste sentido, é possível levantar algumas idéias sobre o papel da escola e também dos livros didáticos nesse processo de criação, ou seja, no desenvolvimento da autoria dos alunos. Neste estudo, pretende-se analisar o modo como se relacionam cópia, reprodução, paráfrase e autoria no processo de construção da autonomia dos alunos a partir das metodologias presentes nas atividades de escrita propostas nos livros didáticos. Foram analisadas seis obras de grande adoção nas escolas e que são aprovadas pelo Programa Nacional do Livro Didático. Em todas elas observou-se a presença de boas estratégias, cujo principal objetivo era apresentar um bom modelo para que o aluno conseguisse ressignificá-lo e, a partir dele, desenvolver o seu próprio texto. Partiu-se da concepção de que a criação humana é sempre mediada por algo que já existe e que não se trata de uma simples repetição: há trabalho dos sujeitos nisso, pois o autor é na verdade um aumentador, ele aumenta o mundo a partir de algo que já existe. Podemos considerar, portanto, que a idéia de criatividade relaciona-se, na verdade, com a idéia de transformação da realidade e que esse processo está presente nos materiais didáticos atuais, enquanto uma boa estratégia para formar escritores mais competentes. / Reading and writing are important tools that can be used by students to enhance their understanding about the world and the environment around them. The ability of writing requires prior knowledge of certain quality standards that must be properly evaluated and reproduced if one wishes to accomplish a good quality text. Thus, the best way to enhance a student´s writing ability might be through writing propositions that stimulate the paraphrases of good text models, aiming at helping their communications skills, until the autonomy in writing is fully developed. In this case, however, a few important points must be considered: can such text models affect the student´s creativity? Is it possible for a student to copy/comply to a model text and, yet, develop his/her own autonomy at the same time? To answer such questions, George Steiner, in his book Grammars of Creation, points that we are always copying, or repeating models, actions or ideas learned from other people. In a general sense, creation would be much closer to paraphrases than from what is understood as original. Bakhtin agrees with this idea, pointing that we can be echoes from other voices around us, repeating ideas that are not just ours, but belong to our social environment and influence our thoughts and actions. This is one of the major driving forces to the development of our knowledge, according to Vigotsy´s Social-cultural Theory. Thus, it is possible to draw a few ideas concerning the role(s) that must be played by the school and the textbooks in the process of developing the students as efficient and autonomous authors of written texts. It is necessary to teach students to find new meanings to the model texts, so they can go beyond copying and reproducing other people´s texts, and start creating upon such new ideas, until their writing develops into true authorship. The evaluation of writing propositions contained in school textbooks might be a good way to determine how it is possible to help students to develop this process. In this work, we evaluated the interplay among copy, reproduction, paraphrases and authorship during students development as independent writers. We considered the methodologies inherent to the writing propositions found in six different school textbooks all of them are widely used in schools across the country and have been approved by the Programa Nacional do Livro Didático. All textbooks contained appropriate exercises, in which the main objective was to force students to define new meanings to model texts, developing these new ideas into an original text. Our main concept is that human creation, although often dependent on previously conceived models, cannot be considered a simple act of repetition; there is genuine input from the author, which can be viewed as an enhancer in this process, as he/she adds upon pre-existing models to develop original ideas. In this sense, creativity is directly associated with a process of transformation of the current reality and most school textbooks can be used to develop strategies to form competent writers.

Skolverket claims from a study that students are using school textbooks that are outdated and doesn't reach the curriculum of Lgy11. The first aim of the study, therefore, is to find out if outdated upper secondary school textbooks are used at high schools today. The second aim of the study is to analyse Christianity, Judaism, conception of life, ethical models and the relationship between religion and science in the textbooks to see if they attain to Lgy11. The textbooks that are analyzed is selected by a sample in terms of email contacts form various high school teachers, from different cities around Sweden. The textbooks that were selected by the sample was published before and after 2011 to see the differences on how close the textbooks are according with the current curriculum published in 2011. The method that has been used in the study in order to analyze the textbooks are content analysis with different categories from Lgy11.

This is a study about the literature used in the Swedish and the Serbian schools and whether there are any differences in the information given about four historical events given to scholars. The events are about how the first world war started, how the first world war ended, how the second world ended and lastly how Yugoslavia dissociated. The purpose of this study is to collect all the information and compare the Swedish with the textbooks from Serbia and lastly to analyze the differences. The questions at issue is what is written in the textbooks about the four historical events and what the differences are between the two counties. The conclusion to this study is that there is not as much differences between the two countries as expected. The Serbian textbooks are more cultural, and the Swedish textbooks are more from a political point of view. But they still talk about the same historical events, and even though some of the textbooks does not write as much as the others. There are more similarities than differences, for example is the information about the attack on Franz Ferdinand death in Sarajevo almost the same. The difference is the amount, the author, has chosen to write.

The purpose of the research is to identify how pupils and teachers experience different kind of study material in school. It is also important to know which factors affect these experiences. This is what my study will examine. The key-factor to be able to interpret different kinds of multimodal literacy is to understand its textual genre. Pupils and teachers need a certain level of technological skills to be able to create multimodal text and to have an estimation of the purpose of different text genres. To analyze the research material a hermeneutic method is used with a phenomenographic focus of the experience that the survey data and interviewed informants provide for the research. Results shows that some experience is similar between the teachers and pupils concerning the different study materials, then again preference might differ when it comes to preparations for tasks or lectures. Something all informants agree upon, is that the computer as digital tool is positive since it is used in every subject in school and it is never lost or forgotten at home by pupils.

<p>A large number of genocides have taken place in our history. The purpose of this essay is to examine how genocide is treated in five high school history textbooks. I have studied a large number of issues. I have examined which genocides are discussed in the textbooks and which genocides the textbooks don’t discuss. I have also examined if there are differences between the textbooks about that matter. I have studied in which context the genocides are discussed. I have also examined how the genocides are described and if there are any differences between the authors about that matter.</p><p>The method of the essay is a quantitative and qualitative text analysis. I have used the following history theories in my analysis: a critical emancipation perspective of history<em>, </em>the materialist <em>conception of history</em> and the <em>idealist conception of history.</em> In the essay a have used Frank Chalks and Kurt Jonassohns definition of genocide.</p><p>The study has shown that a large number of genocides are discussed in the textbooks, but also that a large number are not discussed. There are differences between the textbooks about that matter. The study has confirmed the critical emancipation perspective of history.</p><p>The study has shown that the descriptions of the genocides have its similarities and it's differences.</p>

The period from 1930 to 1946 constitutes one of the most important episodes of the history of Turkish Republic. It is the period in which the new regime was consolidated through a series of radical secularizing reforms, which aimed at weakening the role of religion in politics and society and confining it to the private sphere. In this period, the Kemalist regime tried to replace an identity based on religion by one based on the Turkish nation. It has generally been argued that the transition to multi-party regime and the subsequent coming to power of the Democratic Party in 1950 constitutes a serious break with the previous period by opening a greater space for religion in society. This thesis will try to study the construction of Turkish national identity through a comparison of the high school textbooks of the 1930 &ndash / 1950 period and 1950 &ndash / 1960 era.

Η χρήση αναφορών από την Ιστορία της Επιστήμης στα σχολικά εγχειρίδια γίνεται μέσα από μια ιδιότυπη ερμηνεία των ιστορικών πηγών από τους συγγραφείς τους, εντός των διαφορετικών κοινωνικών και πολιτισμικών πλαισίων κάθε εποχής, η οποία στοχεύει στην εξυπηρέτηση διδακτικών αναγκών και για το λόγο αυτό την ονομάζουμε διδακτική ανακατασκευή της Ιστορίας της Επιστήμης. Μία σημαντική περίπτωση διδακτικής ανακατασκευής που μελετάμε είναι η καθιέρωση της ονομασίας Θεώρημα του Θαλή στην ευρωπαϊκή και ειδικότερα στη νεοελληνική εκπαίδευση, της οποίας κύριο χαρακτηριστικό είναι ότι αντιστοιχεί σε διαφορετικά θεωρήματα στα εγχειρίδια διαφόρων ευρωπαϊκών χωρών. / Textbook writers uses their own interpetation for the references from the History of Science, through different social and cultural conditions of every era, an interpetation which serves purposes and objectives of the teaching of Science and for this reason we call it didactical reconstrution of the History of Science. An important case of didactical reconstruction which is the main theme our study is the establishment of the name Theorem of Thales in European and especially in Modern Greek education, a name that have as main feature that corresponds to differen ttheorems in the textbooks of different European countries.

A large number of genocides have taken place in our history. The purpose of this essay is to examine how genocide is treated in five high school history textbooks. I have studied a large number of issues. I have examined which genocides are discussed in the textbooks and which genocides the textbooks don’t discuss. I have also examined if there are differences between the textbooks about that matter. I have studied in which context the genocides are discussed. I have also examined how the genocides are described and if there are any differences between the authors about that matter. The method of the essay is a quantitative and qualitative text analysis. I have used the following history theories in my analysis: a critical emancipation perspective of history, the materialist conception of history and the idealist conception of history. In the essay a have used Frank Chalks and Kurt Jonassohns definition of genocide. The study has shown that a large number of genocides are discussed in the textbooks, but also that a large number are not discussed. There are differences between the textbooks about that matter. The study has confirmed the critical emancipation perspective of history. The study has shown that the descriptions of the genocides have its similarities and it's differences.