The transition from fluorinated gases to natural refrigerants could be key to reducing the impacts of climate change. Ice rinks are energy-intensive buildings, with large heating and cooling demands. The pumping power required to move the secondary refrigerant typically accounts for a sizable amount of the energy use of the refrigeration system. The use of aqua ammonia as a secondary fluid shows promising results, with pumping power use of about half that required of ethylene glycol, environmental friendliness, and low corrosivity to steel components. Aquaammonia is still novel but is currently in usein 34 Swedish ice rinks. This thesis addresses questions regarding evaporation rates, performance, material compatibility, safety, and regulations of aqua ammonia in ice rink systems. Laboratory tests were performed to assess aqua ammonia evaporation rates during storage and operations. Long-duration concentration change, in well-sealed and well-stored containers, indicated low levels of evaporation for all tested concentrations samples. Short-term concentration in open-air conditions, indicated rapid rates of evaporation, with nearly full evaporation of all ammonia concentration occurring within only 90seconds of open-air exposure. Testing of sample-mixtures containing contamination by substances aquaammonia was likely to encounter during retrofit replacement situations determined that aquaammonia and calcium chloride produce flakey sedimentation. Additionally, lower concentrations of aquaammonia are slightly more prone to becoming basic when mixed with the tested substances, such as calcium chloride. Historical data of systems operating with aquaammonia were analyzed for energy performance. While pumping requirements typically account for 10-20% of the energy for refrigeration, the pumps of the rinks studied with aqua ammonia accounted for only 1.2 to 4.2%. However, data availability and system configuration anomalies suggest additional analyses are required. Furthermore, best operating, maintenance, and safety practices were analyzed and global regulatory restrictions were examined. Surveying of manufacturer material compatibility information found copper and brass to be incompatible with aqua ammonia, while steel and carbon steel are recommended. Various plastics were addressed by the manufacturers, notably PVC was found to be acceptable for use with aqua ammonia. A cost comparison between aqua ammonia and calcium chloride found aqua ammonia to require less expensive equipment. Finally, aqua ammoniawas determined to fall outside of the classification of refrigerants in several international refrigeration codes. Various additional safety regulations guiding personal protective equipment, exposure times, transportation, storage, and disposal regulations were catalogued as part of this work. In summary, aqua ammoniawas found to be a safe substance with performance that matches theoretical energy savings. Pumping requirements were reduced from 10-20% to approximately 1-5% of overall refrigeration system energy use. Necessary safety precautions were found to be much less stringent than high concentrations of ammonia and aqua ammonia was ascertained to fall outside of refrigeration codes in Europe, Canada, and the United States of America. / Övergången från fluorerade gaser till naturliga köldmedier kan vara nyckeln till att minska effekterna av klimatförändringen. Isbanor är energikrävande byggnader med stora värme-och kylbehov. Den pumpeffekt som krävs för att pumpa köldbärare står vanligtvis för en stor mängd energianvändning i kylsystemet. Användningen av ammoniakvatten som köldbärare visar lovande resultat, med användning av pumpeffekt på ungefär hälften som krävs av etylenglykol, miljövänlighet och låg korrosion för stålkomponenter. Ammoniakvattenär fortfarande ny men används för närvarande i 34 svenska isbanor. Detta exjobb behandlar frågor om avdunstningshastigheter, energiprestanda, materialkompatibilitet, säkerhet och föreskrifter för ammoniakvatten i isbanasystem. Laboratorietester utfördes för att bedöma avdunstningshastigheter för ammoniakvatten under lagring och drift. Långvarig koncentrationsförändring, i väl tillslutna och välförvarade behållare, indikerade låga nivåer av avdunstning för alla testade koncentrationsprover. En kortvarig koncentration under friluftsförhållanden indikerade snabba avdunstningshastigheter, med nästan full avdunstning av all ammoniakkoncentration inom endast 90 sekunder efter exponering. Testning av olika ammoniakvatten lösningar som innehåller föroreningar skulle sannolikt påträffas vid byte av köldbärare. Dessutom är lägre koncentrationer av ammoniakvatten lite mer benägna att bli basiska när de blandas med de testade ämnena. Historiska data för system som arbetar med ammoniakvatten analyserades med avseende på energiprestanda. Medan pumpeffekten vanligtvis står för 10-20% av kylenergin, pumparna för de studerade isbanorna med ammoniakvatten behövde bara för 1,2 till 4,2%av kylenergi. Datatillgänglighet och systemkonfigurationsavvikelser föreslår dock att ytterligare analyser krävs. Dessutom analyserades bästa metoder för drift, underhållning och säkerhet och globala regleringsbegränsningar. Kartläggning av tillverkarens materialkompatibilitetsinformation visade att koppar och mässing var oförenliga med ammoniakvatten, medan stål och kolstål rekommenderas. Olika plast och packning materialbehandlades, särskilt PVC var acceptabelt för användning med ammoniakvatten. En kostnadsjämförelse mellan ammoniakvatten och kalciumklorid köldbärare visade att ammoniakvatten krävde billigare utrustning. Slutligen visades det att ammoniakvatten faller utanför klassificeringen av köldmedier i flera internationella kylnormer. Olika ytterligare säkerhetsreglersom styr personlig skyddsutrustning, exponeringstider, transport, lagring och bortskaffande föreskrifter katalogiserades som en del av detta arbete. Sammanfattningsvis visade ammoniakvatten vara ett säkert ämne med prestanda som matchar teoretiska energibesparingar. Pumpeffekten minskade mellan 10-20% och 1-5% av den totala energianvändningen i kylsystemet. Nödvändiga säkerhetsåtgärder visade sig vara mycket mindre stränga än att höga koncentrationer av ammoniak och ammoniakvatten konstaterades falla utanför kylnormeri Europa, Kanada och USA.

Pour être utilisé en réfrigération secondaire comme matériau à changement de phase dans un fluide frigoporteur, un hydrate doit posséder une enthalpie de dissociation élevée, à une température adaptée à l’application (positive pour de la climatisation) et à une pression acceptable pour une installation industrielle. De plus, le mélange diphasique doit présenter de bonnes conditions d’écoulement et d’échanges thermiques. Un dispositif dynamique constitué d'un réacteur agité et d'une boucle de circulation, placé dans une chambre climatique, a été développé pour l’étude de coulis d’hydrates de dioxyde de carbone. Pour ce dispositif, un protocole a été mis en œuvre pour le refroidissement d’une solution chargée en CO2, générant des coulis d'hydrate à taux d’hydrate allant jusqu'à 25°% véhiculant une chaleur latente importante (374 kJ.kg-1). Une étude cinétique sur la formation des hydrates de CO2 dans le réacteur agité à été réalisé et montre que la cinétique de formation de ces hydrates est de 2 %.h-1 dans le réacteur pour une pression, une température, et une vitesse d'agitation de départ de 3 MPa, 12 °C et 1042 tr/min et pour une température de consigne du groupe froid de -1 °C. L’étude rhéologique du coulis a permis de mettre en place une corrélation empirique de type Herschel-Bulkley en fonction du taux d’hydrates qui permet une caractérisation satisfaisante du comportement rhéologique du fluide. Les résultats de l’étude thermique ont permis d’établir des corrélations entre les nombres de Nusselt et de Reynolds qui caractérisent les régimes de fonctionnement thermique du système. / To be used as phase change material in a secondary refrigerant, a hydrate must enclose a high dissociation enthalpy, at a temperature adapted to the application (positive for air-conditioning) and a pressure suitable for an industrial facility. Moreover, the two-phase mixture must present good conditions of flowing and heat exchange. A dynamical set-up with a stirred tank reactor with a loop of circulation, placed in a thermostated room, was developed for the study of carbon-dioxide-hydrate slurries. In this set-up, one protocol was carried out: by cooling of a water-CO2 solution, generating slurries hydrate rates 25 %, conveying a high latent heat (374 kJ.kg-1). A study of CO2 hydrate formation kinetics was lead in the tank reactor and the results showed the CO2 hydrate formation kinetics is 2 %.h-1 for a pressure, temperature and a stirring rate at the begin of 3 MPa, 12°C and 1042°rpm and a temperature of the chiller about -1°C. A study rheological allows the development of an empirical Herschel-Bulkley-type correlation as a function of the hydrate rate was achieved for rheological characterization of the fluid behavior. The thermal results obtained allow establishing correlation as a function of Nusselt and Reynolds number which characterize operational regimes of the system thermal.

L’objectif de ce travail consiste en l'étude expérimentale et la modélisation du comportement thermo-hydraulique d'un fluide frigoporteur diphasique (FFD) particulier : le coulis de paraffine, en écoulement dans un canal rectangulaire simulant un échangeur à plaques. Les coulis de paraffine sont constitués de particules millimétriques de paraffine, stabilisées dans une matrice poreuse el mises en suspension dans de l'eau. Les particules de paraffines sont composées de 75% en masse de Norpar®15 et de 25% de polymère tri-block qui sert à gélifier la paraffine. Les résultats expérimentaux issus de bilans sur les veines d'essai de l'installation développée el mise en place au Centre de Thermique de Lyon (CETHIL), mettent en évidence une intensification importante du coefficient d'échange thermique, due a la présence des particules dans le fluide porteur. Pour un écoulement laminaire du coulis de paraffine dans le canal de refroidissement, une multiplication moyenne par 1 ,25 à 1 ,5 du coefficient d'échange global par rapport au fluide monophasique a été enregistrée pour des fractions massiques en particules de 6 à 12 %. Par régression linéaire des résultats expérimentaux, des corrélations pour le calcul des nombres de Nusselt local et moyen sont proposées. Une approche théorique basée sur le modèle de mélanges (Mixture Mode!) a été élaborée pour étudier le comportement hydraulique et thermique du fluide frigoporteur diphasique FFD pendant son refroidissement en écoulement laminaire dans un canal rectangulaire. L'évolution des valeurs expérimentales et théoriques pour la température moyenne du fluide et le coemcien1 d'échange thermique paroi - fluide montrent qu'ils sont en bon accord. Le modèle peut être considéré comme satisfaisant car les écarts entre résultats théoriques et expérimentaux n'excèdent jamais 14 %. / This work concerns the experimental investigation and modelling of the thermo hydraulic behaviour of a new Iwo-phase secondary refrigerant, the paraffin slurry, flowing through a rectangular channel of a heat plate exchanger type. The paraffin slurries are made of millimetric bullets of paraffin, stabilized in an organic porous polymeric matrix, in suspension in water serving as a carrying fluid. The paraffin particles used contain 75% of paraffin called NORPAR®15 and 25% of a tri-block polymer of styrene with High Molecular Weight (HMW). The experimental results generated by the heat balances on the test sections of the experimental setup built in the Thermal Center of Lyon (CETHIL), highlight an important increase of the heat transfer coefficient, due to the particles presence in the carrying fluid. For a laminar flow of the paraffin slurry in the cold channel, an average multiplication by 1 .25 to 1.5 of the global heat transfer coefficient compared to the single-phase fluid was recorded for particles mass fractions of 6 to 12%. By regression of the experimental results, correlations for the local and average Nusselt number calculation for the laminar flows are proposed. The particularity of the presented correlations is their validity in the case of a pure fluid as we\l as for a two-phase fluid containing so\id particles. A model for the hydraulic and thermal behaviours studies of a Iwo-phase secondary refrigerant fluid during its cooling in laminar flow through a rectangular channel was developed it is based on the mixture model and to king the slip velocity into account. The evolution of the experimental and theoretical values for the fluid average temperature, the heat flow which crosses the walls and the heat transfer coefficient between the wall and fluid shows good agreement and the model is satisfactory since the variations never exceed 14%.

[pt] A pasta de gelo é uma mistura de água e um aditivo, com finas partículas de gelo, apresentando uma alta densidade de energia térmica. O principal motivo de sua utilização deve-se à combinação do aproveitamento do calor latente na mudança de fase com capacidade de ser bombeado. O presente trabalho trata do estudo experimental sobre a transfe rência de calor e queda de pressão, com mudança de fase, utilizando uma mistura de propileno glicol - água com 13,8% de concentração em peso, num trocador de calor de placas com arranjo em U para 16 placas. Realizaram-se testes de troca de calor com escoamento em paralelo e contra-corrente, para duas condições de fração mássica de gelo e números de Reynolds para a pasta de gelo entre 150 e 425, com diferentes condições de carga térmica. Dos testes foram observados aumentos de até 25% no coeficiente global de troca calor, ao se incrementar a vazão e, conseqüentemente, o número de Reynolds da pasta de gelo. Com o aumento da fração de gelo melhora-se a capacidade de resfriamento, diminuindo o número de Nusselt da pasta de gelo. O coeficiente global de troca, porém, começa a diminuir. Na literatura esta relação ainda não está bem definida. Alguns autores relatam ganhos, perdas ou indiferença no coeficiente global. Resultados do coeficiente global e do número de Nusselt, nos modos paralelo e contra-corrente, não apresentaram grande diferença. A capacidade de resfriamento em contra-corrente foi maior, apresentando valores de efetividade cerca 10% acima dos resultados observados no modo paralelo. Os fatores de atrito encontrados variaram entre 0,030 a 0,085, o que concorda com os resultados apresentados por outros pesquisadores. Como era de se esperar, o fator de atrito diminui com o aumento da vazão mássica e de maneira inversa com o aumento da fração de gelo. / [en] Ice slurry is an aqueous solution from which ice crystals are formed. These crystals possess high energy density, in the form of latent heat. Furthermore, the fact of being a slurry makes it an excellent energy carrier, for it can be easily pumped. The present work presents an experimental procedure to assess the heat transfer and the pressure loss, with phase change, using a mixture of propyleneglycol and water, 13.8% weight, in a U-plate heat exchanger with 16 plates. Tests were carried out for both parallel and counter-flow configurations of the heat exchanger, for two different mass fractions of ice and with Reynolds numbers between 150 and 425 for the slurry. Different thermal loads were considered. The experiments showed increases of up to 25% in the overall heat transfer coeficiente when the slurry flow is increased, with consequent increase in the Reynolds number. By increasing the ice fraction the cooling capacity is improved, reducing the Nusselt number. In the literature, this relationship is not clearly defined, as some authors show gains in the heat exchange coefficient, losses, and some others did not observe any influence on this parameter. Regarding the heat Exchange configuration, i.e., parallel or counter-flow, neither the heat exchange coefficient, nor the Nusselt number suffered major influence. The effectiveness is up to 10% higher for the counter-flow configuration in comparison with the parallel configuration. The figures found for the friction coefficient, between 0,030 and 0,085, are in good agreement with the literature. As expected, the friction coefficient decreases when the mass flow is increased, and increases when the ice fraction is increased.