Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2002. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 140-153).

The dry valley systems in the Kalahari of southern Africa are traditionally considered to have developed as a result of past fluvial activity. However, it has also been suggested that erosion by groundwater processes (sapping and deep-weathering) had an important role in development. This thesis aims to establish the relative role of each of these process areas in mekgacha evolution using a combined geological and geomorphological approach. The study area is restricted to the valley systems of Botswana, eastern Namibia and the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, which can be subdivided into exorcic and endoreic systems directed towards the Orange River and the continental interior, respectively. Field studies, analyses of remotely-sensed imagery and a consideration of network orientation identify evidence for the role of both fluvial and groundwater processes in valley development. However, whilst both groups of processes have operated, the importance of each is suggested to have varied both spatially and temporally. Fluvial processes are indicated by sequences of sediments, relict channels and terrace levels, and appear to have operated most recently. Sapping processes are implied in the formation of certain valley systems, primarily from morphological properties and the presence of relict spring lines. Deep-weathering processes are implicated from the close parallelism of many valleys with geological structures now buried beneath thicknesses of Kalahari Group sediments. Borehole records also indicate deep-weathering of bedrock beneath valleys developed above fracture zones, which is suggested to have operated over the longest timescales. Thin-section studies of duricrusts from valley flanks, together with duricrust profiles and records from lithological boreholes, indicate the role of groundwater in their formation. Results suggest an intrinsic link between duricrust formation and valley development. Geochemical and thin-section analyses of duricrusts further suggest that previous considerations of the palaeoenvironmental significance of Kalahari silcretes based upon TiO2 levels may not be wholly appropriate.

In situ capping is a remediation alternative for contaminated sediments which has been implemented to contain contaminants in sediments in rivers, lakes and ponds. One concern with in situ capping is that the additional load due to the in situ cap may cause consolidation-induced mobilization of non aqueous phase liquids (NAPL). Therefore, it is important to understand the consolidation behavior of NAPL contaminated soils. The difficulties of testing river-bed sediments are that these sediments usually are very soft, have very high porosities, and are very compressible. In addition, the contaminants in these sediments should be contained during testing. The primary objective of this research is to investigate the behavior of NAPL contaminated sediments under anisotropic consolidation. A modified triaxial testing system was developed to simulate the consolidation of very soft sediment specimens along with a reconstituted NAPL contaminated specimen preparation procedure. Kaolinite and Anacostia River sediments were used for the sediments’ solids phase. A low viscosity mineral oil, Soltrol 130, was used to represent the NAPL phase. Tap water was used as the water phase. PM199TM, a type of organophilic clay manufactured by CETCO, was used as well to study its effectiveness in containing expelled NAPL. Two sets of consolidation tests were performed: 1) tests on sediment specimens at various NAPL contents and porosities; and 2) tests on specimens contaminated with NAPL with organophilic clays either placed as a layer on top or mixed within the sediment. The results showed that NAPL mobilization was negligible below a threshold NAPL content. Hydraulic conductivities increased with increasing NAPL content up to four orders of magnitude. The tests with organophilic clay showed that when large enough amounts are used, NAPL expulsion can be completely stopped. Organophilic clay reached its full capacity independent of the NAPL content of the underlying sediment. / text

The lower continental slope of Morocco’s west coast consists of Triassic-age salt manifested in the form of diapirs, tongues, sheets, and canopies, and both extensional and compressional structures that result from salt movements. Salt diapirism and regional tectonics greatly influenced a broad spectrum of depositional processes along the margin. Mapping of a 1064-km² (411-mi²) seismic survey acquired in the Safi Haute Mer area reveals that Jurassic to Holocene salt mobilization has induced sedimentation that manifests itself in gravity slumps and slides and debris flows. An east-west–trending structural anticline located downdip of the salt-influenced region, was activated during the Atlas uplift (latest Cretaceous) and shaped much of the lower continental slope morphology from Tertiary time until present. The largest of the mass transport deposits (MTC) is a 500-m (1640-ft)-thick Cretaceous-age unit that spans an area of up to 20,000 km2 (7722 mi2). Seismic facies composing the MTC are (1) chaotic, mounded reflectors; (2) imbricated continuous to discontinuous folded reflector packages interpreted to represent internal syn-depositional thrusts; and (3) isolated, thick packages of continuous reflectors interpreted to represent transported megablocks (3.3 km2 [1.3 mi2]). The latter show well preserved internal stratigraphy. The MTCs originated from an upslope collapse of a narrow shelf during the earliest phases of the Alpine orogeny. Seismic geomorphologic analysis of the non-salt-deformed sections reveal numerous linear features that are interpreted as migrating Mesozoic-age deepmarine sediment waves. Three styles of sediment waves have been identified. These include: (1) type J1—small (less than 17 m thick) and poorly imaged, Jurassic in age, ridges that have wavelengths of up to 12 km and crest-to-crest separations of less than 1 km; (2) type K1—early Aptian constructional sediment waves (~110 m thick) that appear to show some orientation and size variations which suggest an influence on currents by salt-influenced seafloor topography, and (3) type K2—latest Albian and earliest post-Albian sediment waves exhibiting wave heights of 40 m and crest-to-crest separations of 1 km, that are continuous across the entire study area and show evidence of up-slope migration. / text

Beach nourishment provides an excellent opportunity for the study of intensified sediment transport gradients and associated morphological changes in a natural setting. The objectives of this study are to quantify and predict longshore and cross-shore transport gradients induced by 1) beach nourishment, 2) different storm wave conditions, and 3) the annual wave climate and long-term sediment supply. The details of sediment transport rates and gradients induced by gradual processes and high-energy events are analyzed on a macro-scale. Well-planned monitoring of the 2004 Upham Beach nourishment project in west-central Florida collected high-spatial and -temporal resolution field data. Three hurricanes passed by the project soon after nourishment was complete.Post-nourishment planform adjustment occurs immediately after nourishment via diffusion spit development at the end transitions. Thus, the initiation of planform adjustment may be abrupt, rather than gradual as pred icted by the typical diffusion models. Diffusion spit formation is dominant during relatively calm wave conditions on coasts with low wave heights and tidal ranges.Profile equilibration also may be an event-driven, rather than a gradual, process. Rapid profile equilibration following nourishment occurred not only due to hurricane passage, but also during a winter season. The duration between nourishment and the passage of the first high-energy event is an important factor controlling the time scale of profile equilibration.The passage of three hurricanes generated different wave conditions and induced different sediment transport directions, rates, and gradients due to their variable proximities to the project area. The direction of cross-shore transport was governed by wave steepness. Onshore sediment transport occurred during a storm event, in contrast with the concepts of gradual onshore transport during mild wave conditions and abrupt offshore transport during storm events, as cited in the literature.By formulating sediment budgets on various temporal and spatial scales, both event-driven and average transport rates and gradients can be resolved. Annual average transport rates for a region should not be arbitrarily applied to nourished beaches; rather, sediment budgets formulated with high-spatial and -temporal resolution field data should be formulated during the design phase of future nourishment projects.

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Organic and inorganic carbon can enter inland waters in different ways, and often a considerable amount of this carbon is coming from terrestrial input. Once this terrestrial carbon enters a lake, the carbon may be degraded, mineralized or eventually buried in the sediment. Below the oxic zone of the sediment carbon may be used by archaea to produce methane (CH4). The CH4 can then diffuse up in the sediment and escape to the bottom waters, or the CH4 can be oxidized by bacteria using oxygen as an oxidant. There is also an anoxic process to oxidize CH4 (anaerobic oxidation of methane: AOM), using sulfate (SO4) and by recent findings also ferric iron (Fe(III)) as electron acceptors. In this study the main questions of interest were if CH4 is produced in deep (i.e. old) lake sediments and if CH4 is oxidized anaerobically using Fe(III). Two Swedish boreal forest lakes were studied, sediment profiles of CH4 were conducted in the field (down to 60 cm). Collected sediments were sliced anoxically at different depths and then analyzed for ferrous iron (Fe(II)), Fe(III) and SO4. Sediment from different depths was also incubated anoxic in order to test if CH4 production depends on sediment age. The results show that methanogenic activity occurs by degrading old carbon in deep boreal forest lake sediments, and that a certain part of this might then be oxidized anaerobically. However, all cores exposed a general trend of increasing CH4 concentrations with sediment depth, indicating that CH4 production in old sediment layers is greater than AOM. AOM could therefore only act as a partial sink for CH4 in anoxic deep sediments.