The victory of Christian democrats in the parliamentary election of 1948 in Italy was made possible by a cooperation between the Holy See and United States during the pre-election campaign. The thesis presents the outcome of research done on American, but especially on Vatican foreign policy. The foreign policy of Pius XII between 1945 and 1950 had three main features. They were support for European integration, relations with certain European states and fight against communism. A stand of the Holy See on these issues is compared to the American one. The outcome of the analysis is that their foreign policies had some aims in common but that it hardly ever led to cooperation. There were some minor examples of cooperation, but there was none as significant as the one in Italy in 1948. Key words: Holy See, Pius XII, foreign policy, USA, communism, integration

This dissertation presents a fresh approach to the study of Haitian art through research conducted in the emerging interdisciplinary field of exhibition history. In a deliberate attempt to move away from existing notions of Haitian art as a formal or aesthetic style of art practice associated with primitivism – based on mid-twentieth-century art historical narratives – I have opted to explore the display of works by Haitian artists outside of conventional museum and gallery settings. Taking a broader cultural studies approach centred on three case studies, I examine the exhibition of artworks within the transitory sites of national cultural display at two world’s fairs and an art biennial: the Haitian pavilion at the World’s Columbian Fair of 1893; Haiti’s “Little World’s Fair” officially titled Exposition Internationale du Bicentenaire de Port-au-Prince of 1949-50; and the Haitian pavilion at the Venice Biennale in 2011. These exhibitions overlap in the sense that they all claimed to present an official representation of the Haitian nation-state and therefore an authoritative vision of Haitian culture. However, when we peer behind this veneer of official national rhetoric it becomes clear that at each of these sites there were numerous images of Haitian nationhood, as well as notions of a national cultural essence referred to throughout as Haitian-ness, being produced by various agents. Across the course of this study these include: Haitian and foreign state representatives, curators, artists, academics and cultural professionals drawn from Haiti, Haiti’s diasporas and elsewhere, as well as NGOs and other international collaborators. In each case those curating Haiti’s national displays at these events balanced assertions of national sovereignty against international marketability: delicate negotiations that, I argue, can be discerned through analysis of the forms, aesthetics, subjects and contextualisation of the artworks displayed. Across the course of this dissertation therefore I chart a shift in the substance of these Haitian cultural displays, and the artworks presented within them, from a fin de siècle expression of Francophile neoclassicism, through an uneasy post-war coupling of folkloric exoticism and western modernity, to a fragmented picture of contemporary Haitian-ness articulated with reference to poverty and cultural otherness as well as cosmopolitanism. Through an examination of these case studies I have sought to explore how the visual arts intersected with expressions of Haiti’s postcolonial nationhood at exhibitions staged within events scattered across the Atlantic World. Further, by charting shifts in the production and projection of Haitian nationhood and art across these three sites I have attempted to grasp a fuller picture of how entangled ideas of nation and culture have had a bearing on exhibition histories, international institutional engagement with and the marketing and perception of the work of Haitian artists through the long twentieth century.

Entre 1870 et 1939, les relations diplomatiques entre le Saint-Siège et la France sont sans nul doute tumultueuses. La période est marquée à Rome par la fin de l’État pontifical et la perte consécutive de la souveraineté temporelle pour le Saint-Siège en 1870, rétablie sous la forme de l’État de la Cité du Vatican, par la signature des Accords du Latran avec le royaume d’Italie en 1929. En France, le début de la Troisième République se caractérise par un anticléricalisme actif, qui atteint son paroxysme au début du XXe siècle, avec la suppression de l’ambassade de France près le Saint-Siège, suivie de la loi de séparation de 1905, mettant fin au régime concordataire. À la faveur des évènements de la Première Guerre mondiale, un rapprochement s’opère entre la France et le Saint-Siège, concrétisé en 1921 par le rétablissement de relations diplomatiques officielles.L’existence de relations diplomatiques entre deux États a notamment pour objectif de constituer un cadre privilégié pour la menée de négociations. Pendant la Troisième République, les sujets de débat sont nombreux entre les gouvernements français et pontifical. Le caractère juridique a été utilisé comme critère de sélection des affaires. L’étude des modalités de négociation permet de mettre en évidence trois phases chronologiques distinctes, qui dépendent de la combinaison de deux éléments : l’existence ou non de rapports diplomatiques officiels et le cadre juridique – concordataire ou de séparation – qui sert de toile de fond à ces tractations. Pour appréhender de manière pertinente cette évolution des modalités de négociation, il faut déterminer au préalable le cadre institutionnel français et pontifical, décisif pour l’orientation du rapport de forces dans les tractations. Par cette analyse, on constate un rééquilibrage du rapport de forces dans le temps entre la France et le Saint-Siège et une incapacité à rompre de manière absolue les contacts. La variété des intérêts à défendre, en France, à Rome mais aussi plus largement dans le monde, explique que malgré de vives oppositions, la France et le Saint-Siège trouvent toujours un accord. / Between 1870 and 1939, the diplomatic relations between the Holy See and France are obviously hectic. At that time, Roma is marked by the end of the papal State and the consequent loss of the temporal sovereignty for the Holy See in 1870, restored to the State of the Vatican City by the signature of the Lateran treaty in 1929. In France, the beginning of the Third Republic is characterized by an active anticlericalism, which shows a paroxysm at the beginning of the twentieth Century, with the suppression of the French embassy in the Holy See, and then the law of 1905. That cancels the Composition. With the First World War events, a link was made between France and Holy See, materialized in 1921 by the reestablishment of diplomatic relations.The existence of diplomatic relations between two states especially aims at creating a favorable framework to lead negotiations. During the Third Republic, there are numerous debate topics between the French and Papal governments. The legal character has been used as selection criteria for the affairs. The analysis of the negotiation modalities can demonstrate three distinct chronological phases, which depend on the combination of two criteria: the existence or not of official diplomatic relations and the legal bound – composition or separation - which is the backstory of these negotiations. To understand rightly the evolution of the negotiation modalities, we have to fix beforehand the French and Papal institution framework, decisive to turn the battle of wills in bargaining. When running this analysis, we can observe a rebalancing over time of the battle of wills between France and the Holy See and the inability to break completely the relations. The diversity of benefits to protect, in France, at Roma but also and, more widely, in the world, explains that despite strong oppositions, France and Holy See always find an agreement.

University of Macau / Faculty of Arts and Humanities. / Department of English

Little art-historical scholarship has been dedicated to fine art responding to the British home front during the First World War. Within pre-war British society concepts of sexual difference functioned to promote masculine authority. Nevertheless in Britain during wartime enlarged female employment alongside the presence of injured servicemen suggested feminine authority and masculine weakness, thereby temporarily destabilizing pre-war values. Adopting a socio-historical perspective, this thesis argues that artworks engaging with the home front have been largely excluded from art history because of partiality shown towards masculine authority within the matrices of British society. Furthermore, this situation has been supported by the writing of art history, which has, arguably, followed similar premise. This study will demonstrate that engagement with the home front inevitably meant that artists’ work could be interpreted as supporting different values to the pre-war period. However, the reintegration of ex-servicemen after the war resulted in the promotion of the wartime ordeal of male combatants. Not only did this restore the pre-war position of men, it inspired canonical values for British First World War art to uphold masculine authority. Consequently much art engaging with the home front has been deemed antithetical to established canonical values and written-out of art history.

Taking as it basis the longstanding alignment of men with an active, eroticised gaze and women with visual spectacle within Western culture, this thesis demonstrates the prevalence of this model during the Victorian era, adopting an interdisciplinary approach so as to convey the varied means by which the gendering of vision was propagated and encouraged. Chapter One provides an overview of gender and visual politics in the Victorian age, subsequently analysing a selection of texts that highlight this gendered dichotomy of vision. Chapter Two focuses on the theoretical and developmental underpinnings of this dichotomy, drawing upon both Freudian and object relations theory. Chapters Three and Four centre on women’s poetic responses to this imbalance, beginning by discussing texts that convey awareness and discontent before moving on to examine more complex portrayals of psychological trauma. Chapter Five unites these interdisciplinary threads to explore women’s attempts to break away from their status as objects of vision, referring to poetic and artistic texts as well as women’s real life experiences. The thesis concludes that, though women were not wholly oppressed, they were subject to significant strictures; principally, the enduring, pervasive presence of an objectifying mode of vision aligned with the male.

This thesis explores a number of interdisciplinary writings on the Italian past by later nineteenth- and early twentieth-century artistically minded critics and cultural commentators, with a view to recovering their historiographical importance. Beginning with an exploration of the parameters and scope of a genre defined as 'aesthetic history', along with some theoretical work grounded in current debates about the nature of historical representation, this thesis goes on to offer in-depth discussion of texts on the Italian past by John Ruskin, Walter Pater, Vernon Lee, Henry James, D. H. Lawrence and Adrian Stokes. By offering a critical reconstruction of each author's thinking about the past, along with the cogent and ill-explored engagements they make with historiographical study, this thesis affords the reader a better understanding of some of the tensions present in historical writing - tensions surrounding issues of epistemology, visuality, psychology and materiality - during what were decades of great change in historical thinking. Moreover, this thesis offers a detailed investigation into the important role played by the Italian past in the aesthetic-historical canon, which in turn produces a more complicated picture of the connections between literature, aesthetics and historiography during this period.

The 1990s in the United States saw a particular cultural anxiety manifested in the crisis of masculinity, in which American men were perceived to be suffering from a loss of power and diminished authority. As President Clinton heralded a final push towards the millennium and the creation of a better, brighter future for the nation, concerns emerged over the ability of straight, white, middle-class men to access this same future. In this pre-millennial period, fatherhood is presented as the solution to this state of masculine crisis. Hollywood in particular invests in this notion of masculine crisis and the need for rehabilitation through fatherhood, indulging in one of the key tenets of Lee Edelman’s theory of reproductive futurism: that of the future being realised through an investment in the child. This thesis examines a number of Hollywood films produced between 1989 and 2001, with the aim of demonstrating how fatherhood is persistently constructed as the key to masculine survival during a period of considerable anxiety over the future.

The thesis has been prepared on the assumption that Hogarth's picture series are essentially narrative works. They are considered in the Introduction in the light of recent definitions of the narrative strip, a medium in which Hogarth was a considerable innovator. The first six chapters consist of an analysis of each of the pictures in Marriage à la Mode. The analysis was undertaken as a means of exploring the nature of Hogarth's imagination and to discover how coherent a work the series is. There is an emphasis on characterization and setting because Hogarth himself chose to isolate character as a feature in the subscription ticket to Marriage á la Mode. The figures acquire their depth through their interaction with the setting. The interaction compensates for the lack of physical movement in Hogarth's picture narratives and is a source of much of his humour. A number of sections are concerned with relevant background information, such as the traditional rivalry between the cities of London and Westminster, and the medical details of the quack doctor's laboratory. The seventh chapter is concerned with the literary allusion in Marriage à la Mode, particularly to the popular drama of the time. The eighth is concerned with the extensive and ironic use of analogies. The ninth chapter is concerned with the subject of structure, including the delineation of the rôle of the projected spectator as defined by the work which contains him. The tenth is about theme and includes the use made of the traditional elements and 'humours'. It is concluded that Marriage à la Mode is a tragi-comic and melodramatic work, and that Hogarth in what are here termed periphrastic sequences came close to making images behave like words without their becoming dependent on any verbal form. His achievement lay in the ability intelligently to organize diversity into a unified structure, similar to that of situation comedy.

This thesis examines the evolution and dissemination of the iconography of the post-Resurrection appearances of Christ. Special attention is given to the association between word and image, as well as the influence exerted on art by contemporary theology, liturgy and politics. The earliest use of these apparitions in art is associated with baptism while in literature they were successfully employed against heresies. The Virgin’s participation in the post-Resurrection narrative reveals the way in which homilies and hymns inspire art. Another important figure of these apparitions, which receives special attention, is the Magdalene, whose significance rivalled that of the Virgin’s. While the Marys at the Tomb and the Chairete were two of the most widely accepted apparitions, it was the Incredulity of Thomas that found its way in the so-called twelve-feast cycle and revealed the impact of liturgy upon the dissemination of an iconographic theme. The emergence of the Anastasis will rival their exclusive role as visual synonyms of Christ’s resurrection, but this thesis reveals that their relation was one of cooperation rather than rivalry, since the post-Resurrection scenes and the Anastasis complimented each other in terms of iconography and theology. Finally it becomes apparent that the pilgrimage in the Holy Land and the liturgy that was taking place there is responsible for many iconographic details which help us discern the dissemination of a particular iconography.