Los terpenos constituyen el mayor grupo de metabolitos secundarios, siendo componentes de las glándulas de aceites esenciales, de las flores y de las resinas defensivas de plantas aromáticas, a los que proporcionan sus aromas y sabores característicos. Los terpenos volátiles se asocian a la defensa de muchas especies de plantas, animales y microorganismos contra depredadores, patógenos y competidores. Por otra parte, estos compuestos parecen servir como señales para atraer a los polinizadores y agentes dispersores de semillas, así como a depredadores de plagas. El estudio de compuestos orgánicos volátiles emitidos durante el desarrollo del fruto y después del desafío con diferentes agentes bióticos puede ayudar a conocer las interacciones de los frutos carnosos no sólo con vertebrados dispersores y depredadores, sino también con insectos y microorganismos. Los frutos carnosos son particularmente ricos en volátiles. En los frutos cítricos, los monoterpenos son los principales componentes de las glándulas del aceite esencial de la cáscara (flavedo), siendo el D-limoneno el más abundante (hasta 95% en la naranja). Esta característica hace que los cítricos sean un buen sistema modelo para el estudio de la función de los terpenos en los frutos. La biología molecular moderna permite la realización de experimentos para comprobar la función de terpenos por medio del uso de organismos transformados genéticamente en los que se han manipulado los niveles de acumulación de dichos compuestos. En este trabajo, se ha utilizado un plásmido que alberga el cDNA completo del gen de una limoneno sintasa de cítricos (CiTMTSE1) en orientación antisentido (AS) o sentido (S) para modificar la expresión y la acumulación de D-limoneno en plantas de naranjo dulce (Citrus sinensis L. Osb.). La acumulación de D-limoneno en las frutas AS se redujo drásticamente pero la acumulación de otros terpenos también se modificó, afectando a compuestos tales como alcoholes monoterpenos, cuya concentración se incrementó en la cáscara de las frutas. Las plantas transformadas fueron morfológicamente indistinguibles de las plantas control (WT) y de las plantas transformadas con el vector vacío (EV). Los frutos transgénicos fueron desafiados con un insecto plaga y con diferentes patógenos para probar si la alteración de los niveles de acumulación de estos volátiles daba como resultado una mejora en la respuesta del flavedo frente a plagas y patógenos. Los machos de la mosca mediterránea de la fruta (Ceratitis capitata) expuestos a las frutas AS y EV en ensayos en túnel de viento fueron significativamente más atraídos por el aroma de los frutos control EV. En otros experimentos de desafío con el hongo de la podredumbre verde Penicillium digitatum y la bacteria causante de la cancrosis de los cítricos Xanthomonas axonopodis subsp. citri, las frutas transgénicas con un contenido reducido de D-limoneno mostraron elevada resistencia a estos patógenos. El alto contenido en D-limoneno en la cáscara de naranjas maduras puede ser una señal para la atracción de plagas y microorganismos que podrían estar involucrados en la facilitación del acceso a la pulpa de los frugívoros dispersores de semillas. El análisis de la expresión génica global en el flavedo de las frutas transgénicas vinculó la disminución de D-limoneno y la reducción de la expresión de genes del metabolismo de monoterpenos con la activación de la expresión de genes implicados en inmunidad innata, incluyendo factores de transcripción, genes de quinasas implicadas en la entrada de Ca2+ en la célula y genes implicados en la activación de las cascadas de MAPKs, con la consiguiente activación de la ruta de señalización de ácido jasmónico (JA), lo que provocó la activación del metabolismo de JA y un aumentó drástico de la acumulación de JA en la cáscara de la naranja tras el desafío con P. digitatum, lo que explicaría la resistencia al menos a hongos necrotrofos observada en las frutas. Estos resultados indican que la acumulación de D-limoneno en la cáscara de la naranja estaría implicada en la interacción trófica entre las frutas, insectos y microorganismos, lo cual proporciona una visión mucho más amplia de las funciones de los terpenos en la naturaleza. También representa una alternativa muy prometedora para incrementar la resistencia o tolerancia de las plantas frente a patógenos y plagas. / Terpenes, the largest group of secondary metabolites, are well known as constituents of essential oils, floral scents and defensive resins of aromatic plants, to which they impart their characteristic aromas and flavors. Terpene volatiles defend many species of plants, animals and microorganisms against predators, pathogens and competitors. Moreover, those compounds seem to serve as advertisements to attract pollinators and seed-dispersal agents as well as pest predators. The study of VOCs emitted during fruit development and after challenge with different biotic agents may help to determine the interactions of fleshy fruits not only with legitimate vertebrate dispersers and predators, but also with insects and microorganisms. Fleshy fruits are particularly rich in volatiles. In citrus fruits, monoterpenes are the main components of the essential oil glands of the peel, being D-limonene the most abundant one (up to 95% in orange fruits). This characteristic makes citrus a good model system for studying the function of terpenes in plants. Modern molecular biology now enable experiments to test terpenoid function by the use of genetically transformed organisms in which terpene levels have been manipulated. In this work, a plasmid harboring the complete cDNA of a citrus limonene synthase gene (CiTMTSE1) in antisense (AS) or sense (S) orientation was used to modify the expression and accumulation of D-limonene of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. Osb) plants. D-limonene accumulation in AS fruits was dramatically reduced but the accumulation of other terpenoids was also modified, such as monoterpene alcohols, whose concentration increased in the peel of fruits. Genetically transformed plants were morphologically indistinguishable from wild-type (WT) and empty vector (EV) control plants. Transgenic fruits were challenged against a pest and different pathogens to test whether volatile profile alteration results in an improvement in the response of the fruit flavedo against them. Males of the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) exposed to AS fruits versus EV in wind tunnel assays were significantly more attracted to the odor of EV control fruits. In separate experiments with the green mould rot of citrus fruits and citrus canker caused by Penicillium digitatum and Xanthomonas axonopodis subsp. citri, respectively, transgenic fruits with a reduced content in D-limonene showed resistance to both pathogens. High D-limonene content in mature orange peels may be a signal for attractiveness of pests and microorganisms which might be likely involved in facilitating the access to the pulp of seed dispersal frugivores. A global gene expression analysis of the flavedo of AS transgenic fruits linked the decrease of D-limonene and monoterpene metabolism to the up-regulation of genes involved in the innate immunity response, including transcription factors together with Ca2+ entry into the cell and activation of MAPK cascades, contributing to activation of jasmonic acid (JA) signaling, which triggered the up-regulation of JA metabolism and drastically increased the accumulation of JA in orange peels upon fungal challenge, explaining the resistance to necrotrophic fungi observed in AS fruits. These results indicate that limonene accumulation in the peel of citrus fruit appears to be involved in the successful trophic interaction between fruits, insects, and microorganisms and provide a much more comprehensive view of roles of terpenes in nature. It also represents a very promising alternative for increasing resistance or tolerance of plants to pathogens. / Rodríguez Baixauli, AM. (2013). Genetic engineering of plant volatiles in fleshy fruits: pest repellency and disease resistance through D-limonene downregulation in transgenic orange plants [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/31655

Urbanization is increasing at a dramatic rate as the human population increases. While it is well-known that urbanization tends to decrease species diversity (i.e., biotic homogenization), it is not known how urbanization affects the frequency and efficiency of species interactions. Seed dispersal is a plant-animal interaction that depends on disperser feeding rate, disperser diversity, probability of seed dispersal and germination. How these factors are affected by urbanization however is unknown. In this study, we evaluate how urbanization alters these factors. Urban sites had 2x higher feeding rate and 3x higher number of disperser species. The probability of seed dispersal however was the same between natural and urban sites. Moreover, the probability of germination after dispersal was 20% lower in urban sites, leading to overall negative effects of urbanization on T. radicans seed dispersal. In this study we demonstrated that urbanization can affect species diversity, as well as their ecological functions.

Four methods of seed (eggs, sac-fry, and fry) production for Rocky Mt. White hybrid® tilapia, (0. niloticus x O. aureus), were compared under green water conditions over a six month period in an environmentally controlled greenhouse at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University's Aquaculture Research Laboratory. Twelve 3 m2 rectangular tanks were stocked with brood stock (mean wt. 680 g), at a sex ratio of 3 females to 1 male. Nine tanks were stocked at one of three densities (1, 2, and 4 females m-2), and seed was collected from females' mouths weekly. Three additional tanks were stocked at a density of 2 females m-2, and fry were collected from the edges of the tanks when seen. Seed production was among the highest seen for related studies. Average number of viable fry produced at I females m-2, 1660 fry female- I month-I, was significantly higher than the combined average production of densities 2 females m-2 (629 fry female- I month-I) and 4 females m-2 (695 fry female-1 month- 1) (p< 0.02). Even though there was no significant difference between viable fry production meter-2 (p>0.05), the highest density consistently produced more fry meter-2. No significant difference was observed in viable fry production between the two seed collection methods (Clutch removal- 629 fry female-1 month-I; Natural mouth-brooding- 520 fry female-1 month-I) (p>0.05). The effects of stocking density on growth and survival were evaluated by stocking 14-16 day old artificially incubated fry (25.5 ± .32 mg, 12.1 ± .04 mm), into 150 liter troughs at three densities (3, 6, and 12 fry liter-I) under green water conditions for 30 days. The mean monthly hatchery seed survival was 65.7 ± 2.3%, which varied largely depending on initial seed developmental stage. Significant differences were observed between mean weight, length, survival, and feed conversion ratios among the various fry stocking densities (p<O.05). The greatest growth was at a density of 3 fry liter 1 , while survival was not affected until a density of 12 fry liter-I. These results that to maximize fry production and reduce labor, a density of 4 females m-2 or higher be used under the natural mouth brooding seed collection method. They also suggest a fry density between 6 to 12 fry liter-1 should be used with periodic grading or sex reversal to reduce cannibalism and increase growth. / Master of Science

Soybeans within a specific seed size range are often preferred for the manufacture of specialty soy products. This study examined the influence of row spacing and seeding rate on seed yield, average seed size, and seed size uniformity of Camp (small seeded) and V71-370 (large seeded) soybean cultivars [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Experiments were conducted in 1992 and 1993 at Kentland Farm near Blacksburg, Virginia. Row widths of 38 and 76 cm and seeding rates of 125, 250, 500, and 750 thousand seeds ha⁻¹ were used. Averaged over treatments, 38-cm row spacings yielded higher than 76-cm row spacing by 11.6%. Additionally, each increase in seeding rate resulted in increased yield up to 500,000 seeds ha and then leveled off. Yield of useful seed of Camp (total yield multiplied by the proportion of seed between 4.8 and 5.6 mm in diameter) was maximized at narrow row spacings and 500,000 seeds ha⁻¹. Neither row spacing nor seeding rate influenced V71-370 yield of usable seed (larger than 7.9 mm). Averaged over years and cultivars, soybean seed size was not influenced by row spacings or seeding rates. However, in 1993, smaller Camp seed was favored by narrow rows and low seeding rate. Seed size uniformity, as determined by analysis of variance of individual seed weights was, in general, not influenced by row spacing or seeding rates. In a separate investigation in 1992, heritabilities were estimated by two methods using plot data from two replications of lines from crosses of Camp with Jizuka, MD87L-0198, and Stafford soybean cultivars. Heritabilities based on F₃ progeny means regressed on F₂ parental means ranged from 24% to 41% and were lower than the corresponding heritability estimates based on analysis of variance which ranged from 43% to 83%. Correlations of seed size with other agronomic traits were generally low. Although low in magnitude, significant positive correlations of seed size with yield in some crosses might hinder progress of breeders when selecting for small-seeded, high yielding cultivars. / Ph. D.

A computer program package for use with the southern pine seed orchard Inventory-Monitoring System (IMS) was developed and tested using 1980 and 1981 cone crop data collected from Weyerhaeuser's loblolly pine seed orchard at Magnolia, Arkansas. The Computerized IMS, written in Fortran, is accompanied by a user's guide containing data entry instructions. The IMS package includes one predictive program and two programs designed to interpret actual harvest data and make it available for the computation of predictions for future crops. The predictive program utilizes strobilus survival data from sample trees and clonal estimates for cone analysis-derived variables to compute clonal cone and seed yield predictions. Cone yield predictions calculated by the Computerized IMS for the 1980 and 1981 crops indicated that it has the potential for producing useful production estimates. Investigations of variance within the seed orchard having an impact on IMS predictions centered on clonal, age-class (within-clone), annual, orchard location and with in-crown effects on cone analysis-derived variables, cone efficiency and flowers-per-tree. Analysis of clonal variance indicated that seed potential and germination efficiency were under strong genetic control compared to the other characters. Annual clonal stability was high enough for clonal seed potential and seed efficiency to make useful regression models possible for estimating these variables without complete cone analysis. Clonal cone efficiencies displayed low annual stability, discouraging the use of stratified clones to estimate productivity, since clones could change productivity classes from year to year. Within-crown variation was not well-defined for most variables due to clone-crown sector interaction. However, cones were concentrated in the middle one-third of the crown and empty seed percentages were found to be highest in the north crown quadrant. The study indicated that clone-by-clone monitoring of seed orchard production, while the most expensive option, will produce the most reliable and useful yield predictions. / Ph. D.

A new semi-empirical model is introduced for the quantification of inductively-coupled breakdown systems. The model is informed by breakdown studies conducted on the Modular Theta-pinch eXperiment (MTX). Observations made of inductively-coupled breakdown behaviour are consistent with the model's expectations, indicating that the model can be used to aid in design of inductively-coupled pre-ionization systems. The model is further found to be capable of quantifying the efficacy of seed ionization in inductively-coupled systems. Comparisons are made between the standard ringing-theta and a new field-aligned dipole pre-ionization systems. In the presence of sufficient seed ionization, no physical reason was observed for selection of one method over the other, leaving only engineering considerations as the determining factor for selection of an appropriate pre-ionization system. This work is supported by the Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science (ICTAS) at Virginia Tech and the National Nuclear Security Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy. LA-UR-24-31269 / Doctor of Philosophy / A new experiment at Los Alamos National Laboratory called the Modular Theta-pinch eXperiment (MTX) has been constructed to explore a variety of applications of Field-Reversed-Configurations (FRCs). An FRC is a plasma torus with a unique magnetic field configuration that has potential applications for astrophysical shock studies, fusion energy, and space proplusion. The first step in forming an FRC is the pre-ionization step, in which a plasma is created with a magnetic field diffused throughout its volume. The first purpose of this study is to better characterize inductively-coupled breakdown. Breakdown refers to the transition of a gas into a plasma (the fourth state of matter). To do this using inductively-coupled methods means that oscillating magnetic fields are used to induce electric fields in the gas, which cause electrons to gain energy and eventually collide with gas particles, creating a plasma. The second purpose of this study is to compare the more common ringing-theta pre-ionization method to a field-aligned method. Ringing-theta systems have been observed to encounter difficulties with diffusion of magnetic field into the pre-ionized plasma and field-aligned methods are a potential alternative that can circumvent the problems that ringing-theta systems encounter. Together, these studies should allow for other experimentalists to more easily design pre-ionization systems for both FRC experiments and general plasma physics experiments.

<p> Over the last two decades, mycoflorostic studies undertaken in Guyanese forests have uncovered hundreds of new fungal species and genera. One of the recovered fungal families was the Xylariaceae, although most were not identified to species. Members of this family play ecological roles as decomposers, endophytes, and pathogens of vascular plants and grass species.  In addition, this group is increasingly recognized as a significant source of novel metabolic products with potential for applications in medicine, agriculture, and industrial biofuel. Given its  potential, we took a more targeted approach to the documentation of this group. Our sampling  efforts drawing on more than two decades of field collections yielded ca. 90 species in 12 genera, including a putative pathogen, Xylaria karyophthora of the seeds of Chlorocardium spp (Greenheart). Despite the significance of Greenheart to the Guyanese economy, little is known  about the biology and ecology of this fungus. Due to the lack of available resources to study this  fungus, our objectives were two-fold: first, to sequence and annotate the genome of X.  karyophthora to provide a resource for genome-centric explorations, and to use this genome to  infer the biology and ecology of this fungus. We focused on identifying and characterizing  secretomes, viz. carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) and secondary metabolites  biosynthetic gene clusters (SMBGCs) to infer the nutritional strategy of this fungus. Our results  suggest that X. karyophthora has the capacity to act as both an endophyte and a pathogen. To  make further inferences about the population, we used SSR markers to elucidate the genetic  diversity and population structure of X. karyophthora. X. karyophthora populations have high  genetic diversity, potentially exploiting both outcrossing and inbreeding reproductive strategies, and demonstrate a pattern consistent with human-mediated spread. This work will contribute  information on new species and records of Xylariaceous fungi and their allies from Guyana with  particular emphasis on unraveling the epidemiology, genetic diversity, and population structure  of X. karyophthora </p>

Sixty-six isolates of <I>F. oxysporum</I> and <I>F. solani</I> were recovered from healthy and necrotic Essex soybean seedlings grown in naturally infested soil. These were tested for pathogenicity at 20 C and -0.01 MPa water potential in artificially infested, autoclaved field soil. Highly pathogenic, moderately pathogenic, and hypovirulent isolates of both species were identified. Fifty-seven <I>F. oxysporum</I> and nine <I>F. solani</I> isolates were tested for the presence of dsRNA. The presence of dsRNA was not associated with hypovirulence in <I>F. oxysporum</I> since some hypovirulent isolates contained dsRNA while other hypovirulent isolates did not. Furthermore, of six dsRNA-containing <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates, three were hypovirulent, two were moderately pathogenic, and one isolate was highly pathogenic. Four segments of dsRNA, with sizes of 4.0, 3.1, 2.7, and 2.2 kb, were detected in extracts of all six <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates. No morphological differences were found between dsRNA-containing and dsRNA-free <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates. Attempts to cure dsRNA-containing hypovirulent <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates, either by single-sporing of isolates or by using a range of concentrations of cycloheximide, were not successful. No dsRNA was found in any of the F. solani isolates tested. Pythium ultimum, an associate in Essex seedling disease, was isolated from water-soaked lesions and interfered with evaluations of disease caused by the Fusarium spp. Metalaxyl was used to control P. ultimum and had no apparent effect on symptoms associated with <I>F. oxysporum</I> and <I>F. solani</I> in field soil. Prior inoculation of Essex soybean seeds with conidia of dsRNA-free hypovirulent <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates, plus metalaxyl seed treatment, significantly (p<0.05) reduced disease severity on both cotyledons and hypocotyls and increased the rate of seedling emergence in field soil, compared to the control plants treated with metalaxyl alone or not treated with metalaxyl. No significant (p>0.05) differences were found between dsRNA-containing and dsRNA-free hypovirulent <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates in their effects on the reduction of disease severity. A mixture of two hypovirulent <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates was significantly (p<0.05) more effective than single hypovirulent <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates in increasing the rate of seedling emergence. Symptoms associated with P. ultimum were not affected by the prior inoculation of seeds with individual hypovirulent <I>F. oxysporum</I> isolates. / Master of Science

Seed dispersal mutualisms, including seed dispersal by ants, are critical to the assembly of communities and the function of ecosystems. However, the consequences of human-caused global change factors, such as habitat fragmentation and climate change, for the future of these mutualisms are not fully understood. My dissertation consists of five chapters that investigated the effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change on ants and their seed dispersal mutualisms. Chapter 1 is an introduction that provides background information on habitat fragmentation and anthropogenic climate change and their impacts on biodiversity. In Chapter 1, I also introduce my study system of ant-mediated seed dispersal mutualisms, myrmecochory. My next two chapters (Chapters 2 and 3) explored the effects of reconnecting fragmented habitat patches with corridors in restored longleaf pine savanna systems in South Carolina. We used a landscape scale experiment to investigate how reducing isolation affects the assembly of ant communities over time (Chapter 2) and seed dispersal of the myrmecochorous forb, Piriqueta cistoides (Chapter 3). For Chapter 2, we found evidence that both habitat connectivity and edge effects underly the effects of corridors on ant communities over time. We found that connected patches accumulated ant species faster than isolated patches over time suggesting that corridors function by facilitating colonization. We also found evidence that edge effects play a role with greater ant functional group diversity in patches with higher edge than patches with lower edge amounts. For Chapter 3, we also found evidence of corridor and edge effects with ants dispersing seeds of P. cistoides longer distances in patches connected via corridors than isolated patches, but only in the center of patches. In Chapter 4, we investigated the effects of predicted climate change scenarios for seed dispersal mutualisms in eastern deciduous forests. For this chapter, we conducted a mesocosm experiment in which we crossed temperature with altered precipitation magnitude and frequency. Our mesocosms contained a common spring ephemeral wildflower, Sanguinaria canadensis, and whole colonies of their mutualist seed disperser, Aphaenogaster rudis. This design allowed us to collect high-resolution data on how ants interacted with seeds under different climate change scenarios that incorporated warming temperatures and altered precipitation. We found that warming effects depended on the precipitation treatment with negative effects of warming on the collection of seeds by ants under historical precipitation regimes and positive effects of warming under simulated precipitation conditions altered under predicted climate change. Finally, Chapter 5 describes my general conclusions from this body of work. Taken together, the research making up my dissertation provides valuable insights into how changing environmental conditions under habitat fragmentation and climate change may alter ant seed dispersal mutualisms. Importantly, we often found that the impacts of global change were context dependent and that our experiments were important tools in disentangling that context dependency. Further, this work demonstrates the value of understanding the basic ecology of the interactions among organisms. Understanding the natural history of organisms across changing environmental conditions will benefit the ways in which we conserve and restore ecosystems in a fragmented and warmer world. / Doctor of Philosophy / Most plants and animals engage in mutualisms, which are interactions between species in which both benefit from interacting with each other. The focus of this dissertation are the impacts of human-caused environmental change on the mutualism between ants and plants in which ants move a plant's seeds. The dispersal of ant-dispersed plants is considered a mutualism because the ants receive a food reward in the form of a fat- and protein-rich appendage that grows on the seed while the seeds of the plant get moved to a better location for germination. The mutualisms between ants and the plants they disperse are critical to how plants are distributed in many ecosystems, yet the consequences of human-caused environmental change, such as habitat loss and climate change, for these mutualisms are not fully understood. My dissertation consists of five chapters that investigated the effects of habitat fragmentation (the breaking apart of larger habitats into smaller, more isolated patches as a result of habitat loss) and climate change on ants and their seed dispersal mutualisms. My first chapter introduces background on the consequences of habitat fragmentation and climate change on organisms, ant seed dispersal mutualisms, and the potential effects of altered environmental conditions on seed dispersal by ants. My second two chapters (Chapters 2 and 3) explored the effects of reconnecting isolated habitat patches with habitat corridors (strips of habitat restored between the isolated habitat patches). In restored longleaf pine savanna systems in South Carolina, we used a long-term, landscape scale experiment to study how increasing connectivity and changing the shape of habitats via corridors affects ant community diversity over time (Chapter 2) and seed dispersal of the ant-dispersed plant, pitted stripeseed (Piriqueta cistoides) (Chapter 3). For Chapter 2, we found both habitat connectivity and patch shape effects underly the effects of corridors on ant community over time. We found that connected patches accumulated ant species faster than isolated patch types which suggests that corridors may function by facilitating colonization into the patches they connect. We also found evidence that patch shape plays a role in supporting greater ant functional group diversity in patches with greater perimeter (more edge habitat) than patches with less perimeter (less edge habitat). We found that ants in patches with more edge habitat represented a greater number of functional groups, which are categories that describe the roles ants play in ecosystems. For Chapter 3, we also found evidence of corridor and patch shape effects with ants dispersing seeds of pitted stripeseed longer distances in patches connected via corridors than isolated patches, but only in the center of patches. In Chapter 4, we investigated the effects of predicted climate change scenarios on seed dispersal mutualisms in eastern deciduous forests. For this chapter, we conducted an experiment in which we crossed temperature with altered precipitation in mesocosms, which are small, simulated ecosystems that allowed us to investigate the effects of warming and altered precipitation in a controlled setting. Our mesocosms contained a common spring ephemeral wildflower, bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), and whole colonies of their mutualist seed disperser, winnow ants (Aphaenogaster rudis). We found that the effects of warming temperatures depended on the precipitation treatment. Warming had a negative effect on the number of seeds collected by ants under historical precipitation regimes, but a positive effect under simulated precipitation conditions under predicted climate change (higher in magnitude and lower in frequency). Finally, Chapter 5 describes my general conclusions from this body of work. Taken together, the research making up my dissertation provides valuable insights into how changing environmental conditions under habitat fragmentation and climate change may alter ant seed dispersal mutualisms. Importantly, we often found that the impacts of global change were context dependent. Our experiments were important tools in disentangling that context dependency. Further, this work demonstrates the value of understanding the basic ecology of the interactions among organisms. Understanding the natural history of organisms, especially their responses to changing environmental conditions, will ultimately benefit the ways in which we conserve and restore ecosystems in a fragmented and warmer world.

Yes / This study used fluorescence excitation-emission matrices (EEMs) analysis to investigate the characteristics of natural organic matter (NOM) in treated water using okra crude extract (OCE), sabdariffa crude extract (SCE) and kenaf crude extract (KCE) as coagulants. In addition, an assessment of the impact of purified okra protein (POP), purified sabdariffa protein (PSP) and purified kenaf protein (PKP) was undertaken. The performance evaluation of these coagulants in terms of increase or decrease in dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was compared with Peak T fluorescence intensity observed at excitation wavelength 220–230 nm, and emission wavelength 340–360 nm. Fluorescence analysis of water treated with the crude extracts identified the removal of DOC in peaks A and C region whereas the increase in DOC from the protein was predominantly found in peaks T and B region. Furthermore, it was observed that the purified proteins were noted to be capable of reducing the DOC concentration in raw water where all fluorophores were not detected. The application of OCE, SCE and KCE yielded an increase in DOC of 65, 61 and 55% respectively, corresponding to increases of 65, 29 and 54% in peak T fluorescence intensities, at 100 mg/l dose. Furthermore, DOC concentration was reduced by 25, 24 and 18% using POP, PSP and PKP respectively as coagulants with corresponding decreases in fluorescence intensity of 46%, 44 and 36% in POP, PSP and PKP, at a lower dose of 0.1 mg/l. Therefore, it is clear that Peak T fluorescence intensity could be used to characterise organic matter in treated water using natural extracts to assess final water quality. / Financial support given to this research work by the Nigerian Government through the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETfund/AST &D/2013/2014/CE/02)