Les technologies de fabrication additive(FA) basées sur la technique de fusion laser sur lit de poudres, telles que les procédés de fusion sélective laser (Selective Laser Melting ‘SLM’) et de fusion par faisceau d'électrons (Electron Beam Melting ‘EBM’), ne cessent de se développer afin de produire des pièces fonctionnelles principalement dans les domaines aérospatial et médical. Le procédé de fabrication additive offre de nombreux avantages, tels que la liberté de conception, la réduction des étapes de fabrication, la réduction de la matière utilisée, et la réduction de l'empreinte carbone lors de la fabrication d'un composant. Néanmoins, les pièces obtenues nécessitent une opération d’usinage de finition afin de satisfaire les tolérances dimensionnelles et l’état de surface. / Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques based on powder bed fusion like Selective Laser Melting(SLM) and Electron Beam Melting processes(EBM) are being developed to make fully functional parts mainly in aerospace and medical sectors. There are several advantages of using AM processes like design freedom, reduced process steps, minimal material usage and reduced carbon footprint while producing a component. Nevertheless, the parts are built with near net shape and then finish machined to meet the demands of surface quality and dimensional tolerance.

La fusion laser sélective d’un lit de poudres (Selective Laser Melting – SLM) connait un véritable essor depuis quelques années,notamment en ce qui concerne la production de pièces métalliques. La faible densité des alliages d’aluminium, conjuguée à l’optimisation de conception rendue possible grâce aux procédés de fabrication additive, assure un gain de masse des structures conséquent, ce qui intéresse fortement les industriels des domaines automobile et aéronautique. Cependant, les propriétés finales des pièces aluminium fabriquées par SLM dépendent des nombreux défauts sont générés lors de la fabrication (porosités, fissuration à chaud, état de surface, …). Cette thèse s’intéresse aux moyens de mieux maîtriser ces problèmes en explorant trois axes : Une identification et sélection des méthodes de caractérisations adaptées aux spécificités des matériaux métalliques élaborés par les procédés de fabrication additive « lit de poudre » a été mise en place. Par exemple, la comparaison de différentes méthodes de détermination de la densité relative de pièces nous a permis de montrer les avantages et inconvénients de chacune des techniques employées ; Une étude du moyen de fabrication SLM a mis en évidence l’influence de différents facteurs (flux de gaz, position des éprouvettes sur le plateau de construction, méthodes de dépôt de la poudre) sur les propriétés finales des pièces produites.Ces éléments ont un impact sur la densité des pièces, leurs propriétés de surface et leurs propriétés mécaniques. Nous avons ainsi constaté que la façon de positionner une pièce sur le plateau est une étape de la préparation d’une fabrication à ne pas négliger ; Les études paramétriques menées sur deux types d’alliages d’aluminium, AlSi7Mg0,6 et AM205, ont montré que la composition chimique de l’alliage d’aluminium employé influence de façon non négligeable le jeu de paramètres opératoires à appliquer pour fabriquer une pièce de manière optimale. La densité d’énergie volumique ψ, rapport de la puissance laser avec le produit de la vitesse de lasage, de la distance inter-cordons et de l’épaisseur de couche, est utilisée de façon classique pour l’optimisation des conditions opératoires en SLM. Nos études expérimentales à différentes échelles (1D et3D) ont permis de mettre en évidence les limites de ce critère. La combinaison de ces résultats à la simulation numérique du lasage d’un cordon de poudre a servi de base à la définition d’un premier modèle dont l’objectif sera à terme d’optimiser le choix des paramètres de fabrication. / Interest in selective laser melting (SLM) has been growing in recent years, particularly with regard to the production of metal parts.The low density of aluminum alloys, combined with the possible design optimization enabled by additive manufacturing processes,ensures a significant decrease in the mass of structures which is very interesting for manufacturers in the automotive and aerospaceindustries. However, it is difficult to control the final properties of aluminum parts manufactured by SLM because many defects, suchas porosity, hot cracking, and surface roughness, are generated during the process. To better understand how to optimize theperformance of SLM aluminium parts, several studies were conducted during this work: An identification and selection of characterization methods well-adapted to the specificities of metallic materials developedby powder bed additive manufacturing processes was established. For instance, the comparison of different methods ofdetermining the relative density of parts showed the advantages and disadvantages of each of the techniques; A study of the SLM machine highlighted the influence of various factors (gas flow, positions of specimens on the constructionplate, or methods of depositing the powder) on the final properties of the produced parts. These elements have an impacton the density of the parts, their surface properties, and their mechanical properties. We found that the positioning of a pieceon the tray is a critical step in the preparation of a build that is not to be neglected; Parametric studies carried out on two types of aluminum alloys—AlSi7Mg0,6 and AM205—have shown that the chemicalcomposition of the aluminum alloy used has a significant influence on the set of operating parameters required tomanufacture an acceptable aluminum alloy part. The energy density, ψ, which is the ratio of the laser power to the productof the lasing speed, the hatching distance, and the layer thickness, is conventionally used for the optimization of the operatingconditions in SLM. Our experimental studies performed at different scales (1D and 3D) have shown the limits of this criterion.The combination of these results with the numerical simulation of the lasing of a single powder bead served as a basis forthe definition of an initial model, the final objective of which will be to optimize the choice of manufacturing parameters.

Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den aktuell bestehenden Herausforderungen der Technologie der additiven Fertigung in Form des selektiven Laserstrahlschmelzen (SLM). Es soll sich mit den Aspekten des Leichtbaus beim SLM-Verfahren beschäftigt werden. Dies geschieht mit zwei theoretischen Lösungsansätzen zur Gewichtsreduzierung von Bauteilen: 1. der Einsatz von Werkstoffen geringerer Dichte oder von neuen hochfesten Werkstoffen; 2. neue Bauweisen durch neue Konstruktions- und Werkstoffaufbauprinzipien. Praktisch erfolgt der erste Ansatz durch die Entwicklung von Prozessparametern und deren Einfluss auf das Gefüge von - für das SLM-Verfahren - neuen Leichtbauwerkstoffen, den Titanaluminiden (TiAl). Aus der großen Spanne von verschiedenen TiAl-Legierungen wurden für diese Arbeit folgende Vertreter Ti38,87Al43,67Nb4,08Mo1,02B0,1 und Ti48Al48Cr2Nb2 aufgrund ihres guten Eigenschaftsspektrums und der unterschiedlichen Erstarrungsvoränge gewählt. Aufgrund der hohen Anzahl von Einflussgrößen sollen verschiedene Ansätze, wie statistische Versuchspläne oder Einzelbahncharakterisierungen, verfolgt werden, um eine effiziente und schnelle Parameteroptimierung zu erzielen. Der zweite Ansatz verfolgt die Herstellung verschiedener Gitterstrukturen aus 1.4404-Stahl (X2CrNiMo 17-12-2). Durch das Fertigen von Gittern mit verschiedenen relativen Dichten, was über eine Variation der Durchmesser der Streben erreicht wird, sowie das mechanische Testen dieser, ist es möglich, eine Datengrundlage für zukünftige Konstruktionen zu erstellen. / This work deals with the currently existing challenges of technology of additive manufacturing in the form of selective laser melting (SLM). The aspects of lightweight construction with the SLM process will be highlighted. This is done with two theoretical approaches to weight reduction of components: 1. the use of materials of lower density or new high-strength materials; 2. new construction methods through new design and material construction principles. In practice, the first approach is performed through the development of process parameters and their influence on the microstructure of - for the SLM-process – a new lightweight material, the titanium aluminide (TiAl). Among the large range of various TiAl alloys the following two representatives Ti38,87Al43,67Nb4,08Mo1,02B0,1 and Ti48Al48Cr2Nb2 were chosen because of their good property spectrum and their different solidification behavior. The second approach pursued the production of various lattice structures made of 1.4404 steel (X2CrNiMo 17-12-2). By fabricating lattices with different relative densities, which is achieved by varying the diameter of the struts, and the mechanical testing of those, it is possible to create a data base for future construction principles.

Zugl.: Duisburg, Essen, Univ., Diss., 2009

The Material Point Method (MPM) is a modern finite element method that is classified as a point based method or meshless method, while it takes the advantage of two kinds of spatial discretisation that are based on an arbitrary Eulerian-Lagrangian description of motion. The referenced continuum is represented by the material points, and the motions are tracked through a computational background mesh, that is an arbitrary constant mesh which does not move the material. Hence, in the MPM mesh distortion especially in the large deformation analysis is naturally avoided. However, MPM has been employed to simulate difficult problems in the literature, many are still unsatisfactory due to the lack of rigorous validation. Therefore, this thesis firstly provides a series of simple case studies which any numerical method must pass to test the validity of the MPM, and secondly demonstrate the capability of the MPM in simulating difficult problems such as degradation of highly swellable polymers during large swelling that is currently difficult to handle by the standard finite element method. Flory’s theory is incorporated into the material point method to study large swelling of polymers, and degradation of highly swellable polymers is modelled by the MPM as a random phenomenon based on the normal distribution of the volumetric strain. These numerical developments represent adaptability of the MPM and enabling the method to be used in more complicated simulations. Furthermore, the advantages of this powerful numerical tool are studied in the modelling of an additive manufacturing technology called Selective Laser Melting (SLM). It is shown the MPM is an ideal numerical method to study SLM manufacturing technique. The focus of this thesis is to validate the MPM and exhibit the simplicity, strength, and accuracy of this numerical tool compared with standard finite element method for very complex problems which requires a complicated topological system.

La fabrication directe et additive regroupe un ensemble de technologies de mise en forme des matériaux en rupture avec les procédés conventionnels. L'industrie aéronautique et aérospatiale s'intéresse fortement à ces nouveaux procédés, dont la fusion sélective par laser de lits de poudre métallique (SLM). Cette thèse présentera les enjeux de la fabrication additive ainsi que certains procédés. Une étude bibliographique a été menée sur deux alliages aéronautiques utilisés dans ces travaux : l'alliage de titane TA6V et le superalliage base nickel Nimonic 263. Les travaux présentés dans ce rapport comprennent l'étude de la poudre métallique brute d'atomisation (morphologie, granulométrie, composition chimique). D'autre part, l'étude de la recyclabilité de la poudre utilisée en SLM est présentée pour le TA6V, tant en ce qui concerne l'évolution de la poudre elle-même que celle des propriétés mécaniques des pièces qui en sont issues. Par ailleurs ce travail traite d'un modèle de consolidation du lit de poudre permettant également d'évaluer la productivité du procédé. Enfin, une étude paramétrique et thermique menée sur le Nimonic 263 en vue de l'établissement d'une solution de contrôle procédé est présentée. / Direct and additive manufacturing regroups several new technologies that are very different from conventional manufacturing processes such as casting. Aeronautic and space industries are really interested in those new processes such as the selective laser melting of metallic powder beds know as the SLM process. This PhD thesis report will show the issues of additive manufacturing and will describe some processes. A bibliography study has been done on two aeronautical alloys used in this work: titanium alloy TA6V and nickel-based superalloy Nimonic 263. This work also presents powder characterization (granulometry, morphology chemical composition) for the gas atomized powder. Besides, study has been done on the recyclability of the TA6V powder for the SLM process, for the powder itself and the mechanical properties of parts built from recycled powder. Moreover, this works deals with a powder bed consolidation model to estimate the productivity of the process. Then, a parametric and thermal study has been done on the Nimonic 263. The coaxial system for thermal visualization is described such as the image processing algorithm used. Finally, this reports deals with the study of thermal signature of typical SLM defects.

The selective laser sintering (SLS) process or the additive manufacturing (AM) enables the construction of a three-dimensional object through melting and solidification of metal powder. The primary advantage of AM over the conventional process is providing the manufacturing flexibility, especially for highly complicated products. The quality of AM products depends upon various processing parameters such as laser power, laser scanning velocity, laser scanning pattern, layer thickness, and hatch spacing. The improper selection of these parameters would lead to parts with defects, severe distortion, and even cracking. I herein perform the numerical and experimental analysis to investigate the interplay between processing parameters and the defect generation. The analysis aims to resolve issues at two different scales, micro-scale and product-scale. At the micro-scale, while the numerical model is developed to investigate the interaction of the laser and materials in the AM process, its advantages and disadvantages compared to an analytical approach (Rosenthal’s equation), which provides a quicker thermal solution, are thoroughly studied. Additionally, numerical results have been verified by series of experiments. Based on the analysis, it is found that the simultaneous consideration of multiple processing parameters could be achieved using the energy density. Moreover, together with existing criteria, a processing window is numerically developed as a guideline for AM users to avoid common defects at this scale including the lack of fusion, balling effect, and over-melting. Thermal results at a micro-scale are extended as an input to determine the residual stress initiation in AM products. The effect of energy density and substrate temperature on a residual stress magnitude is explored. Results show that the stress magnitude within a layer is a strong function of the substrate temperature, where a higher substrate temperature results in a lower stress. Moreover, the stress formation due to a layer’s addition is studied, in which the stress relaxation at locations away from a top surface is observed. Nevertheless, even though the micro-scale analysis can resolve some common defects in AM, it is not capable of predicting product-scale responses such as residual stress development and entire product’s distortion. As a result, the multiscale modeling platform is developed for the numerical investigation at the product level. Three thermal models at various scales are interactively used to yield an effective thermal development calculation at a product-scale. In addition, the influence of the multiple layers, energy densities and scanning patterns on the residual stress formation has been addressed, which leads to the prediction of the residual stress development during the fabrication. The distortion of products due to the residual stress can be described by the product-scale model. Furthermore, among many processing parameters, the energy input and the scanning length are found to be important factors, which could be controlled to achieve the residual stress reduction in AM products. An optimal choice of a scanning length and energy input can reduce an as-built residual stress magnitude by almost half of typically encountered values. Ultimately, the present work aims to illustrate the integration of the computational method as tools to provide manufacturing qualification for part production by the AM process.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a group of manufacturing technologies which are capable to produce 3D solid parts by adding successive layers of material. Parts are fabricated in an additive manner, layer by layer; and the geometric data can be taken from a CAD model directly. The main revolutionary aspect of AM is the ability of quickly producing complex geometries without the need of tooling, allowing for greater design freedom. As one of AM methods, Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a process for producing metal parts with minimal subtractive post-processing required. It relies on the generation and distribution of laser generated heat to raise the temperature of a region of a powder bed to above the melting point. Due to high energy input to enable full melting of the powder bed materials, SLM is able to build fully dense metal parts without post heat treatment and other processing. Successful fabrications of parts by SLM require a comprehensive understanding of the main process controlling parameters such as energy input, powder bed properties and build conditions, as well as the microstructure formation procedure as it can strongly affect the final mechanical properties. It is valuable to control the parts' microstructure through controlling the process parameters to obtain acceptable mechanical properties for end-users. In the SLM process, microstructure characterisation strongly depends on the thermal history of the process. The temperature distribution in the building area can significantly influence the melting pool behaviour, solidification process and thermal mechanical properties of the parts. Therefore, it is important to have an accurate prediction of the temperature distribution history during the process. The aim of this research is to gain a better understanding of process control parameters in SLM process, and to develop a modelling methodology for the prediction of microstructure forming procedure. The research is comprised of an experiment and a finite element modelling part. Experimentation was carried out to understand the effect of each processing control parameters on the final part quality, and characterise the model inputs. Laser energy input, build conditions and powder bed properties were investigated. Samples were built and tested to gain the knowledge of the relationship between samples' density and mechanical properties and each process control factor. Heat transfer model inputs characterisation, such as defining and measuring the material properties, input loads and boundary conditions were also carried out via experiment. For the predictive modelling of microstructure, a methodology for predicting the temperature distribution history and temperature gradient history during the SLM process has been developed. Moving heat source and states variable material properties were studied and applied to the heat transfer model for reliable prediction. Multi-layers model were established to simulate the layer by layer process principles. Microstructure was predicted by simulated melting pool behaviour and the history of three dimensional temperature distribution and temperature gradient distribution. They were validated by relevant experiment examination and measurement.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第22370号 / 医博第4611号 / 新制||医||1043(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 別所 和久, 教授 戸口田 淳也, 教授 妻木 範行 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a new and rapidly developing manufacturing method for producing full-density, geometrically complex metal parts. The SLM process is time and cost effective for small-scale production; however, wide-spread adoption of this technique is severely limited by residual stresses that can cause large deformations and in-process build failures. The issues associated with residual stress accumulation are most apparent in parts with overhanging features. Due to the complexity of the SLM process, the accumulation of residual stresses is difficult to assess a priori. The deformations and in-process failures caused by residual stress accumulation often lead to an expensive and time consuming iterative manufacturing process. To aid in the development of general SLM design guidelines for overhanging features, the effect of varying two support structure design parameters on residual stress accumulation were investigated. A part-scale thermo-mechanical finite element model was implemented using Diablo, a multi-physics finite element code developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and trends observed in the model were validated experimentally. By comparing the distribution and magnitude of residual stresses, it was determined that reducing cooling rate gradients in overhanging features reduces the resulting residual stresses. Additionally, it was shown that volume effective material properties can be used to reduce computational costs in computational models of the SLM process.