Rationale: The rate of acquisition of drug self-administration may serve as a predictor of later drug-taking behavior, possibly influencing vulnerability to initiate drug use. Objectives: The present study examined the effects of perinatal (gestation/lactation) lead exposure on adult rates of acquisition of intravenous (i.v.) heroin self-administration and cocaine self-administration using an automated procedure that included both Pavlovian and operant components. Methods: For Experiment 1, female rats were gavaged daily with 0 or 16 mg lead for 30 days prior to breeding with nonexposed males. Metal administration continued through pregnancy and lactation and was discontinued at weaning (postnatal day [PND] 21). Animals born to control or lead-exposed dams received indwelling jugular catheters as adults and subsequently were tested daily in a preparation where sessions included an initial 3-hr autoshaping period followed by a 3- hr self-administration period. During autoshaping, heroin (.018 mg/kg) infusions were paired with the extension and retraction of a lever when a lever press was not made for 15 sec, while infusions occurred during self-administration only when a lever press was executed (FR-1). The criterion for acquisition was a 2-day period during which a mean of 10 infusions/session occurred during self-administration. Animals were given 35 days to reach criterion. Results: Findings from Experiment 1 showed the proportion of rats meeting the lever-press response criterion for heroin when tested as adults was lower among lead-exposed animals. In Experiment 2, cocaine (.20 mg/kg) was presented to animals that underwent the same metal-exposure regimen, surgical procedures and methods with variations only in the number of infusions that were automatically administered during the Pavlovian component. Criterion for cocaine acquisition was a mean of 50 infusions over a two-day. In Experiment 2, a greater proportion of leadexposed animals reached the criterion for cocaine acquisition. Conclusions: Developmentally lead-exposed animals showed a decrease in vulnerability to initiate drug-taking behavior when presented with heroin in the adult phase, relative to controls. In contrast, developmentally lead-exposed animals showed an enhanced vulnerability to reach the criterion for cocaine self-administration. Clinical relevance of developmental exposure to lead and the attendant vulnerability to self-administer drugs of abuse is discussed.

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Self-efficacy innefattar tilltro till sin egen förmåga och är ett av de mål som gymnasieskolor arbetar för. En enkätundersökning med hundrafemtio gymnasieelever utfördes med syfte att se hur dessa uppfattar sin egen tro på sin förmåga inom två olika gymnasieprogram utifrån fyra informationskällor. Även fyra intervjuer med lärare genomfördes för att ta reda på hur de arbetar för att öka elevernas tro på sin förmåga. Resultatet utifrån enkätundersökningen visade att eleverna i båda programmen hade hög self-efficacy samt att elever inom naturprogrammet upplevde att tidigare erfarenheter ökar deras self-efficacy. Eleverna inom byggprogrammet upplevde däremot att fysiska och emotionella tillstånd ökar deras self-efficacy. Intervjuundersökningen visade att lärarna genom uppmuntran stöder elevernas self-efficacy. Resultatet stämde till viss del med tidigare forskning.

<p>An abstract of a dissertation that examines the effect of practicing different forms of self-control, inhibition and initiation, on the occurrence of subsequent behaviors reflecting one or both types of self-control. Previous work based on the limited strength model of self-control has demonstrated that practicing small acts of self-control can improve self-control over time. However, past research involving self-control practice has operationalized self-control primarily as the inhibition of impulses. The current set of studies distinguishes between two forms of self-control: self-control by inhibition and self-control by initiation. This work also contributes to the self-control literature by treating self-control as an idiosyncratic process. Study 1 tested whether fluctuations in each form of self-control, aggregated at the daily level, would predict the degree to which people reported engaging in other self-control behaviors. Study 1 was a two-week experience sampling study in which 101 undergraduates reported several times daily on their self-control behaviors. The results of Study 1 support a distinction between self-control by inhibition and initiation. Moreover, the finding that participants actually studied more on days when they reported exerting more self-control by initiation seems to support a possible practice effect on self-control that may be specific to form. Study 2 introduced a practice manipulation, testing whether practicing one form of self-control (either inhibition or initiation) leads to improvement in only that type of self-control (but across domains), or across both forms. Study 2 was four weeks in total: two weeks of a practice manipulation (either inhibition, initiation, or a no-practice control) and two weeks of experience sampling. Analyses were carried out using multilevel modeling in SAS Proc Mixed and SAS Proc Glimmix. However, results indicated that there was no main effect of practice on subsequent self-control behaviors. Follow-up analyses revealed that the effect of practice varied across dependent variables and as a function of reported exertion of inhibition and initiation. Several effects from Study 1, including the effect of within-person exertion of initiation on subsequent self-control behaviors, were replicated. Possible explanations for the unexpected findings, including the strength of the practice manipulation, are discussed. Ideas for future research, including tailoring self-control practice to specific demands on self-control, are presented. Implications for the effect of practice on future self-control pursuits and a distinction between inhibition and initiation are also discussed.</p> / Dissertation

The purpose of this study was to investigate, under experimental conditions, the effect of a laboratory experience on self-acceptance and internal-external control with academically deficient college students as compared with Regular students.The ninety subjects in this study were all undergraduate students at Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana. The study was conducted during the spring of 1978.Two sections of the Career and Life Planning course, Counseling Psychology 110, were designated as control groups; and, two other sections were designated as experimental groups. One section of the control group sections contained Academic Opportunity Program students; and, one section contained regular students. The same was true for the experimental group. The experimental groups participated with a vital peer in six one hour laboratory sessions over a six week period. Each week's laboratory session consisted of an experiential exercise and a group discussion. The feedback by the subjects and vital peers utilized guidelines delineated by Brammer.The data collected for each subject was the total score obtained on the Personal Orientation Self-Acceptance Scale and Rotter's Internal-External Scale. Each subject was administered a pre-test and post-test of each instrument.The effects of the treatment were analyzed through the use of a 2 X 2 multivariate analysis of covariance. The pre-test scores were used as a covariate.An F-test was used to test the parallelism of regression hyperplanes. This test-examined the homogeneity of the mean factors; and the results indicated the groups were parallel. The implications for this test indicated that the results could be interpreted directly.Two null hypotheses were stated. The first null hypothesis stated that there would be no significant difference between the A.O.P. subjects and the Regular subjects on the P.O.I. (Sa) Scale. This hypothesis was not rejected at the .05 level. The second hypothesis stated that there would be no significant difference between the A.O.P. subjects and the Regular subjects on the I-E Scale. This hypothesis was not rejected at the .05 level. A significant multivariate F (F=4.43, P.<.05) did occur when comparing all of-the A.O.P. subjects scores and all of the Regular subjects' scores. The univariate F which had an effect on the multivariate F was the P.O.I. (Sa) Scale (F=7.42, P.<.01).It was concluded from this study that:this treatment, with this population, in this time frame and measured by the P.O.I. (Sa) Scale, did not produce significance between the Experimental and Control groups.2. this treatment, with this population, in this time frame and measured by the I-E Scale, did not produce significance between the Experimental and Control groups.3. A.O.P. and Regular subject groups in this study experienced an increased overall mean on the Post P.O.I. (Sa) Scale.4, based on the correlation matrix which was constructed, the P.O.I. (Sa) Scale and the I-E Scale were found to measure separate factors.The results of this study and subjective observations indicated several areas which may be worthy of further exploration.1. This study needs to be replicated where the time periods could be extended to an hour and one-half to provide more time for the individual laboratory experiences.It is recommended that two groups of subjects be used which are not enrolled in the Career and Life Planning class.3. Although the measurement instruments used in this study are frequently used in research, it might be advisable to replicate this study using a different measurement which may be more sensative.4. Since the purpose of this study was to establish a need for further research, this research might be geared towards creating an instrument that does evaluate the effects of a V.P. feedback process.5. A 12 hour marathon group may provide additional and different information than the six week laboratory experience.6. Board games similar to the Ungame and Lifestyle may be added to the laboratory experiences. The subjective responses indicated subject popularity which may influence self-acceptance and/or internal-external control.

Psychologists have long been directing their energy to the domain of moral judgment or moral prediction, assuming that when extended to moral behaviour, results will prove consistent. The aim of this research was to explore the dissociation between moral prediction and moral behaviour. Pilot research suggests that people expect others to act less morally than they say they would. The results of two experiments, however, suggest the opposite. In both studies, participants were assigned to either a moral action condition, where they were placed in a moral dilemma, or a moral prediction condition, in which they had to predict their behavior in that dilemma. In Study 1, the Dictator Game was used to measure morality, whereas in Study 2, cheating behaviour was measured. In both experiments, participants acted more morally than they predicted they would. This research has implications for scrutinizing the applicability of previous work on moral self-prediction.

Of the numerous psychological constructs self-esteem is the most known. It is well documented that having high levels of self-esteem is associated with positive health implications. Self-esteem is theorized as a global and stable construct impacted by both academic and non-academic domains. The physical domain compartmentalized within the non-academic domain, is used to look at self-esteem related to physical self-perceptions. In the physical domain, the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model (EXSEM) (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989) was developed to measure changes in self-esteem, physical competence, physical acceptance, and self-efficacy across an exercise intervention. Fox (2000b) suggested that middle-age marks a time where positive changes to self-esteem are possible. For women, middle-age can be accompanied by several challenges including a physical body that moves further from societys ideal (i.e., young, beautiful, and thin). Hatha yoga is an exercise practice that has become popular in North America in recent years, especially with middle-aged adults, and may represent an ideal activity to be used within the EXSEM as it emphasizes both physical competence and acceptance. <p>The purpose of the study was to utilize the EXSEM as a framework to examine self-esteem, physical competence, physical acceptance, and yoga self-efficacy constructs for middle-aged women participating in a 12-week Hatha yoga intervention. An additional exploratory objective of the study was to examine potential changes in mindfulness consisting of observing, describing, acting with awareness, and accepting without judgement for middle-aged women participating in a 12-week Hatha yoga intervention. <p>Participants in the study were 51 women (M age 49.3  6.1; yoga group, n = 21; control group, n = 30) of predominantly White ethnicity (92%). Descriptive information about the sample via a demographics form and an Eastern philosophy familiarity open-ended question, and the following measures, Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ; Godin, & Shephard, 1985), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965), Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP; Fox & Corbin, 1989), Body Esteem Scale (BES; Franzoi, & Shields, 1984), Body Image Visual Analog Scale (BIVAS), Yoga Self-Efficacy Scale (YSES), and the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS; Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004) were collected at pre-test and post-test (YSES was administered an additional time for the yoga group only). Doubly multivariate analyses using SPSS (version 14.0) examined four statistical models to answer research questions and help negotiate several dependent variables in the research design. Model 1 looked at higher order constructs in the EXSEM (i.e., RSES, physical self-worth subscale of the PSPP, BES, BIVAS, and YSES). Model 2 was identical to model 1 with the exception of including lower order domain items for physical competence (i.e., PSPP subscales of sport competence, physical strength, physical condition, attractive body). Model 3 looked at subscales of YSES (i.e., standing poses, forward bends, back bends, twists, and seated/supine poses), whereas model 4 examined subscales of KIMS only (i.e., observe, describe, act with awareness, accept without judgement). <p>Following the doubly multivariate analysis, PSPP subscales showed significant group by time interactions; follow-up univariate tests, p < .05, showed significance on PSW F(1, 49) = 12.22, conditioning subscale of PSPP F(1, 49) = 10.65, strength subscale on PSPP F(1, 49) = 13.11, BIVAS F(1, 49) = 6.45, YSE total score F(1, 49) = 9.84, and YSE subscales of forward bends F(1, 49) = 17.84, twists F(1, 49) = 8.18, and seated/supine poses F(1, 49) = 6.21, and observation subscale of KIMS F(1, 49) = 12.16, p < .05. In all cases, the yoga group improved more over time than the control group.<p>General support for the use of the EXSEM for middle-aged women participating in Hatha yoga over 12-weeks was noted with changes in yoga self-efficacy for total score, twists, forward bends, and seated/supine poses; physical competence of physical self-worth, body conditioning, and physical strength; and physical acceptance (BIVAS). A major finding was that no overall change in self-esteem was found with a sample whose means for self-esteem were similar to previous research with middle-aged women. Similarly, partial support for mindfulness with changes in observing following the 12-week Hatha yoga intervention was found. Future research should focus on further developing appropriate measurement of physical acceptance; the appropriateness of EXSEM for examining Hatha yoga should be considered; qualitative methods should be used to gain additional insight into the process of Hatha yoga participation for middle-aged women.

Morality has been a central topic of philosophy throughout Western civilization. Integrity is almost synonymous with morality. However, recent widespread corporate scandals challenge our belief that individuals, who at one moment are perceived to live by the standards of integrity, will consistently be moral. Moral self-regulation research (Monin & Miller, 2001; Zhong & Liljenquist, 2006; Zhong, Liljenquist, & Cain, 2009) investigates how people’s perception of their own integrity influences morality and proposes, counter-intuitively, that boosting a sense of integrity would reduce moral behavior (moral licensing) and threatening integrity would increase moral behavior (moral cleansing). This dissertation aims at developing this research by broadening the concept of integrity and by understanding the role that moral identity plays (Aquino & Reed, 2002). I argue that integrity is not only associated with whether one behaves consistently with moral values, but also with whether one behaves consistently with non-moral values, which are also strongly held beliefs but do not involve others’ well-being. Drawing on self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988), I argue that self-integrity associated with non-moral values (non-moral self-integrity) could influence moral behavior in a similar way as self-integrity associated with moral values (moral self-integrity). I further argue that some individuals are more subject to the influence of self-integrity than others, and moral identity, the relative importance one assigns to morality within one’s self-conception, can identify when concerns with self-integrity will matter in moral domains. Different theories, however, predict two alternative ways that moral identity could moderate licensing and cleansing effects. Evidence from moral identity research suggests that the effects would be weaker among individuals high in moral identity because these individuals are more resilient towards psychological mechanisms that lead to variations in moral behavior. However, self-affirmation theory suggests that the effects would be stronger among individuals high in moral identity because these individuals’ self-integrity are more closely connected to morality and thus they are more likely to manage changes in integrity through moral self-regulation. Four studies were conducted to test the effects of non-moral self-integrity and moral identity on four forms of moral behaviors: volunteering, donating, cheating, and ethical leadership. The accumulative evidence supports the argument that boosted non-moral self-integrity reduced moral behavior and threatened non-moral self-integrity increases moral behavior. In addition, the data supported the prediction derived from self-affirmation theory, namely that licensing and cleansing effects resulting from non-moral self-integrity maintenance were stronger among individuals high in moral identity. This dissertation extends moral self-regulation research by revealing a more thorough connection between integrity and moral behavior and by identifying an important boundary condition of this research. It also has implications for managerial research on leader integrity and using integrity tests in personnel selection.

Psychologists have long been directing their energy to the domain of moral judgment or moral prediction, assuming that when extended to moral behaviour, results will prove consistent. The aim of this research was to explore the dissociation between moral prediction and moral behaviour. Pilot research suggests that people expect others to act less morally than they say they would. The results of two experiments, however, suggest the opposite. In both studies, participants were assigned to either a moral action condition, where they were placed in a moral dilemma, or a moral prediction condition, in which they had to predict their behavior in that dilemma. In Study 1, the Dictator Game was used to measure morality, whereas in Study 2, cheating behaviour was measured. In both experiments, participants acted more morally than they predicted they would. This research has implications for scrutinizing the applicability of previous work on moral self-prediction.

The purpose of the study was to investigate relationships between teacher self-concept and pupil reading achievement at the first and second grade levels. Research has verified the relationship between teacher self-concept and pupil self-concept as well as between pupil self-concept and reading achievement. A logical extension would seem to be that teacher self-concept is related to pupil reading achievement. However, this assumption does not appear to have been thoroughly investigated. This study was designed to investigate that relationship.The subjects included 275 pupils and the thirty-two teachers to whom these pupils were assigned in first and second grades. The sample was drawn from four elementary schools in a large midwestern city. Criteria for selection of schools included random assignment of pupils to both first and second grade self-contained classrooms during the 1977-78 and 1978-79 school years.Instruments employed in the study included the Index of Adjustment and Values administered to assess global self-concept of teachers. The discrepancy score (Self-Ideal Self) was used as a basis for classifying teachers into groupings designating range of discrepancy from minimal to maximal. The SRA Assessment Survey Achievement Series, administered to pupils as part of the regular testing program within the school corporation, provided the data on reading achievement.After teacher discrepancy scores were computed, rank ordered, and subdivided into three sections for each grade, these were designated as minimal discrepancy score (Mi DS), medium discrepancy score (Me DS), or maximal discrepancy score (Mx DS). Nine groups representing the nine possible combinations of teachers grouped by discrepancy scores were devised. The reading achievement scores obtained by pupils at the end of second grade were then placed into the appropriate groups based on the designations of their first and second grade teachers. Mean reading achievement scores and standard deviations for pupils in each group were computed.The following null hypotheses were tested:1. No significant relationships exist between teacher self-concept and pupil reading achievement when pupils are identified on the basis of assignment in first and second grades to teachers manifesting varying degrees of discrepancy between self-concept and ideal self-concept.2. No significant differences exist in the reading achievement of pupils having had either a first or second grade Mi DS teacher and pupils who did not.3. No significant differences exist in the reading achievement of pupils having had either a first or second grade Mx DS teacher and pupils who did not.4. No significant differences exist in the reading achievement of pupils having had a Mi DS first grade teacher and pupils who did not.A one-way analysis of variance technique comparing the differences of the means within and between groups was employed. No significant differences were found. Therefore, none of the four null hypotheses was rejected.The most obvious conclusion to be drawn was that teacher self-concept, when assessed by the IAV which provides a global measure, revealed no significant relationship to pupil reading achievement. However, it is possible that several dimensions of self-concept exist and variables demonstrated in the classroom may not have been adequately measured by the self-concept instrument. Also, it is possible that the self-concept's of other, more significant adults such as parents exert a greater influence on children's reading achievement than the self-concept of the teacher. It was recommended that further studies be conducted to investigate these implications.