Förlåtelse anses ibland som den enda lösningen för sårade eller kränkta känslor och icke-förlåtelse anses betyda att man fortsätter med grubblerier och hämndbegär. Syftet med studien var att studera förlåtelsens och icke-förlåtelsens funktioner, upplevelser och samband med empati. Trettio respondenter från Sverige, Finland och Frankrike svarade skriftligt eller muntligt på intervjufrågor om förlåtelse och eller icke-förlåtelse. Intervjuerna meningskoncentrerades och analyserades med tematisk analys och resultatet visade att både förlåtelse och icke-förlåtelse kan ha positiva men olika funktioner för individer. Situationen och vem som skulle förlåtas är avgörande faktorer för när det är förlåtelse eller icke- förlåtelse som är det optimala för t ex. självkänslan. Förlåtelse och icke-förlåtelse visade sig vara motsatser till varandra endast i två bemärkelser, när det gäller empatiska känslor och fortsatt kontakt. Studien kan komma till nytta inom arbeten där man bemöter individer som har upplevt svåra kränkningar.

Förlåtelse anses ibland som den enda lösningen för sårade eller kränkta känslor och icke-förlåtelse anses betyda att man fortsätter med grubblerier och hämndbegär. Syftet med studien var att studera förlåtelsens och icke-förlåtelsens funktioner, upplevelser och samband med empati. Trettio respondenter från Sverige, Finland och Frankrike svarade skriftligt eller muntligt på intervjufrågor om förlåtelse och eller icke-förlåtelse. Intervjuerna meningskoncentrerades och analyserades med tematisk analys och resultatet visade att både förlåtelse och icke-förlåtelse kan ha positiva men olika funktioner för individer. Situationen och vem som skulle förlåtas är avgörande faktorer för när det är förlåtelse eller icke- förlåtelse som är det optimala för t ex. självkänslan. Förlåtelse och icke-förlåtelse visade sig vara motsatser till varandra endast i två bemärkelser, när det gäller empatiska känslor och fortsatt kontakt. Studien kan komma till nytta inom arbeten där man bemöter individer som har upplevt svåra kränkningar.

It has been well-documented in the literature that there are many physical and psychological benefits to be derived from regular aerobic exercise. It has also been noted that adherence/compliance to aerobic exercise regimens tends to be quite low. Investigators have found that a number of factors tend to correlate with adherence, but it has been difficult thus far to determine a mechanism which underlies a tendency to adhere versus a tendency to drop-out. This study examined the problem of non-adherence from the perspective of Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1977). Subjects for this investigation included all patients seen during a four week period in the Cooper Clinic at the Aerobics Center in Dallas, Texas. Patients at the clinic receive a complete physical examination and health prescriptions based upon the results of their examination. During this four week period, half were administered a Self-Efficacy Questionnaire. Approximately three months later all patients seen during this four week period received a followup (adherence questionnaire in the mail). It was hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship between responses on the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire and responses on the Adherence Questionnaire. A second hypothesis stated that there would be a positive relationship between items which specifically pertained to exercise on each of the questionnaires. In addition, it was expected that there would be no difference in adherence rates between those who made self-efficacy judgments and those who did not. Results of a t-test conducted between the group which made self-efficacy judgments and the group that was not asked to make such an evaluation demonstrated no significant difference in adherence rates. A correlational analysis revealed that there was not a statistically significant relationship between total self-efficacy scores and total adherence scores. There was, however, a statistically significant relationship between levels of exercise self-efficacy and levels of exercise adherence. In addition to these main variables of interest, correlations between other variables (sex, age, percent bodyfat, etc.) were examined and discussed.

Abstract Associations have been found between diabetes status and periodontal diseases and dental caries. In addition to biological explanations, psychological features can be proposed to affect the relations between oral health and IDDM (=insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus). The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychological features characterizing oral hygiene practices, dental visiting and diabetes self-care. The research population consisted of 149 IDDM patients, and cross-sectional data were collected by a quantitative questionnaire, in clinical examinations and from patient records. There was a positive correlation between the sum scores for dental self-efficacy and diabetes self-efficacy and, correspondingly, between the dental and diabetes locus of control beliefs. High self-esteem was found to associate with good adherence to some specific health behaviors, such as tooth brushing, exercising and insulin adjustment. When Weiner's attribution theory was used, there were similarities in the causal thinking in oral and diabetes view. All in all, especially the perception of self-efficacy was found to be a powerful feature characterizing health behavior. There were overlapping relations showing an association of high dental self-efficacy with good diabetes adherence, of high diabetes self-efficacy with frequent dental visiting, and of good metabolic control with high tooth brushing self-efficacy, frequent tooth brushing and low plaque level. On the basis of these results, enhancement of self-efficacy appears important. These results suggest that there might, indeed, be some common psychological features for both oral health behavior and diabetes self-care. These could partly explain the relations between diabetes status and periodontal diseases and dental caries. The results can be utilized in patient-centered health education by identifying and enhancing the psychological features that characterize health behavior and health status. The results emphasize the need for co-operation between dental and diabetes health care professionals in their daily practice.

The aim of this thesis was to explore the relationships between the constructs of self-compassion (SC), self-esteem (SE) and recovery in psychosis. It is presented to the reader as three separate papers. 1) A systematic literature review exploring the relationships between SE and the positive symptoms of psychosis, 2) an empirical study investigating SC, SE, recovery in psychosis and positive psychotic symptoms and 3) a critical appraisal and personal reflection of the processes involved in conducting the research. Paper one presents a systematic review of the existing literature that explores the relationships between SE and the positive symptoms of psychosis. Thirty-four articles were identified which met the strict criteria. The evidence was mixed and much of it inconclusive. There was some support for the relationship between SE and delusions, in particular paranoia. The evidence for hallucinations was much less conclusive. Recommendations for future research were suggested as were potential clinical implications which arose from the review. The empirical study presented in paper two explores the relationships between SE, SC and recovery in psychosis, and aimed to assess whether SC was a unique predictor of recovery in psychosis, over and above the impact of SE (using cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis). Further exploratory analysis was conducted to ascertain whether specific positive symptoms of psychosis were related to SC and SE. At baseline, the results indicated that SC did not contribute unique variance in recovery from psychosis over and above that attributable to SE. Longitudinally, SC at baseline was not related to recovery at follow up. Exploratory analysis revealed levels of SE and SC were significantly different in groups who had a presence or absence hallucinations, but not delusions. Methodological strengths and limitations, clinical implications and ideas for future research discussed. Paper three provides the reader with a critical reflection of the processes involved in the undertaking of the two papers presented. Implications for clinical practice are discussed as well as directions for future research.

The present study investigated the relationship between variables of father’s behaviour and their daughter’s levels of self-esteem - both were explored based on the perceptions of the daughter. Self-esteem was viewed as the measure of worthiness that one attributed to oneself, whilst the variables of father’s behaviour included support, punishment, control, rejection, indulgence, autonomy and protectiveness. The same elements of mother’s behaviour were also considered to see how they related to their daughter’s self-esteem; the primary motive for doing this was to provide a contrast to the outcome of the fathering information. The participation of seventy-seven young adult women between the ages of 21 and 34, and from different race groups and cultural backgrounds was requested through a number of associates who then passed the relevant questionnaires on to their associates. Respondents were asked to return the questionnaires fully completed, and data on father variables and self-esteem were then used from these questionnaires. Statistical analysis involved non-parametric analyses in the form of Spearman’s Correlation Rank and demonstrated a significant, negative correlation between protectiveness and self-esteem (r =-.368, p<0.001, 13.54% of variance) only for the father behaviours, while for the mother behaviours significant correlations existed between praise and self esteem, rejection and self-esteem, punishment self-esteem and protectiveness and the young adult women’s self-esteem. Theoretically and practically the implications of the findings suggest that parents and the roles they play may have an impact on their daughter’s self-esteem, at least for this sample, and thus future research into the meanings of the above findings and their impact on children - or more specifically - female children is a worthwhile undertaking, as is consideration of the stereotypical gender roles that society upholds. / Brenda Radebe

M.A. / Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by an intense fear of gaining weight, a refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight and a significant disturbance in the perception of the shape or size of his or her body (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Anorexia nervosa typically begins in mid-to-late adolescence (age 14-18 years). Follow-up studies show that only 10% of those with anorexia nervosa fully recover. While almost half may show partial recovery, many continue to be seriously impaired by depression, social phobias or recurrent symptoms (Herzog et al., 1993). Early onset (before 16) may be associated with a less negative prognosis, although a far from favourable one (Theander, 1996). Considerable clinical literature exists on the etiology of anorexia nervosa, but for the purpose of the current study cognitive factors that may relate to anorexia nervosa were examined. Specifically, the study focused on two self-evaluations: self-efficacy and self-esteem. Generalized self-efficacy can be defined as a global confidence in one's coping ability across a wide range of demanding or novel situations (Schwarzer, 1993). Self-esteem is defined as the evaluation that the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself/ herself (Rosenberg, 1965). To ascertain levels of self-efficacy and self-esteem, the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1993) and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) (Rosenberg, 1965) were administered in an experimental group of white adolescent girls diagnosed with anorexia nervosa (n=24) as well as a control group (n=24). An ex-post-facto experimental control group correlational design was implemented, andtwo-tailed t-tests conducted to determine the significance of differences regarding levels of self-efficacy and self-esteem between the two groups. The results indicated that there was no significant difference between the experimental group and control group with regard to their levels of self-efficacy. However, the experimental group exhibited lower levels of self-esteem in comparison to the control group. These results indicate that generalized self-efficacy, as a cognitive self-evaluation on its own, does not distinguish between adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa and a control group, and that domain-specific self-efficacy should also be considered in future research. The results further confirmed that girls diagnosed with anorexia nervosa exhibit lower levels of self-esteem as suggested in previous research (e.g. Wilksch & Wade, 2004). With regard to future research, larger groups are needed to elaborate on the current findings. Furthermore, additional research investigating the role of other aspects of self-esteem such as outer self-esteem and inner or trait self-esteem, as well as other aspects of self-efficacy such as domain specific self-efficacy, could contribute to the current findings.

Tidigare forskning har funnit ett samband mellan sociala medier och attityder till sig själv. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka om det finns ett samband mellan användningen av Instagram, självkänsla och kroppsmissnöje samt om det finns några könsskillnader eller åldersskillnader avseende detta. Sammanlagt besvarade 232 gymnasister och högskolestudenter enkäten som mätte användning av Instagram samt graden av självkänsla respektive kroppsmissnöje. Av deltagarna var 132 kvinnor.   Resultaten visade att det inte fanns något samband mellan användningen av Instagram och graden av självkänsla respektive kroppsmissnöje, vilket strider mot tidigare forskning. Vidare visade resultaten på att lägre grad av självkänsla var relaterad med högre grad av kroppsmissnöje. Gällande detta visades en könsskillnad, där kvinnor hade lägre självkänsla och högre kroppsmissnöje än män. Detta resultat stödjer tidigare forskning som har påvisat samma resultat. Studien bidrar med ökad kunskap om användningen av Instagrams betydelse för individers attityder till sig själva.

The intent of this study was twofold. It was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of an experiential program which' purportedly enhanced self esteem in gay men. In addition, it aimed to discover what events and human experiences facilitate self esteem. The eight gay male participants who volunteered for the self esteem program were also employed to obtain data which was used to discover factors which facilitate self esteem. Flanagan's (1954) critical incidents technique was used to discover what facilitates and hinders self esteem in everyday life. A category system of factors facilitating self esteem was induced from critical incidents data obtained in a preliminary interview and from a journal of significant events which participants submitted throughout their involvement in the program. The program evaluation was based on three sources of information. The participants were compared with a control group of eight gay males on Rosenberg's (1965) Scale of Self Esteem both before and after their involvement in the program. They were also subjects in preliminary and summary, open-ended, interviews which were designed to assess changes in self esteem and to discern the degree to which initially stated goals and expectations were fulfilled by their participation in the program. In addition, critical incidents questions in the summary interview assessed how, and the degree to which, the program incorporated the factors which facilitate self esteem in everyday life. The names given to the eighteen categories of behaviours, events and/or experiences which were found to facilitate self esteem in everyday life are as follows: appreciation, affiliation, recognition, acceptance, honesty, self acceptance, self support, forgiveness, contributing, performance, confidence, accomplishment, sense of progress, overcoming, self care, belonging, social comparison, and independence. Given the exploratory and descriptive nature of this study, these factors constitute an initial model of what facilitates self esteem that needs to be tested using appropriate methods of verification. Interview data indicated that the experiential program facilitated the self esteem of seven of the program's eight participants. One participant reported that self esteem remained unchanged from the preliminary interview. Participants described six primary types of change: increased self confidence; increased self acceptance; improved capacity to engage in, strengthen and maintain satisfying interpersonal relationships; increased self knowledge; improved self discipline; and resolutions to existential questions. In addition, summary interview data revealed that participants were able to specify experiences, activities and events occurring within the context of the program which were representative of every facilitative category. Moreover, the relative absence of reported hindering incidents indicates that the hindering effect of the program on self esteem is negligible. Quantitative results did not corroborate the qualitative evidence for increased self esteem. An analysis of covariance applied to self esteem scores did not produce a significant difference between the participants and a control group. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

To date, the undertaking of health promoting behaviors in working women is an issue which has not been explored in any depth. This issue has become particularly important because of two parallel phenomena - the rapid expansion of the numbers of women in the workforce, and the growing interest in health promotion - which have emerged in Canada in the last twenty years or so. As well, factors which may relate to the undertaking of health promoting behaviors have been hypothesized and investigated to some extent, but have not yet been fully determined. Self-esteem has been proposed as one motivational factor in the undertaking of health promoting behaviors. The present study has sought to determine the extent to which self-esteem, working conditions, and demographic factors, are related to the undertaking of health promoting behaviors in working women. The conceptual model used is a modified version of Pender's (1982) Health Promotion Model in which a feedback mechanism operates, reinforcing the performance of health promoting behavior as self-esteem levels grow, and equally, reinforcing self-esteem levels according to the extent to which health promoting behaviors are undertaken. Subjects of a random sample of 500 female union members working in the greater Vancouver area were mailed a questionnaire package. The questionnaires asked for data on present levels of self-esteem, health promoting behaviors presently undertaken, and demographic and working condition factors. Following a repeat mailing, the final number of responses available for analysis was 229 (46%). Simple linear regression analysis revealed that self-esteem was predictive of health promoting behaviors in a global sense, and, in particular, of self-actualization, health responsibility, exercise, and nutrition. However, neither demographic variables, nor the number of hours worked per week, were found to be predictive of health promoting behaviors. Although the study suffered from a limitation due to a low response rate, the sample was determined to be broadly representative of the union population. Therefore, these study results may be generalized to other urban, unionized females sharing similar demographic characteristics. / Medicine, Faculty of / Population and Public Health (SPPH), School of / Graduate