Els resultats d'aquesta Tesi posen de manifest el paper del cervell en el control del desenvolupament larvari de Sesamia nonagrioides. Així, S. nonagrioides és el primer lepidòpter on s'ha trobat que es pot desenvolupar de larva a adult sense cervell. Les nostres dades mostren que les mudes depenen de l'alliberament d'ecdisteroides per les glàndules protoràciques (GPs) però poden tenir lloc sense la hormona protoracicotròpica (PTTH) del cervell.Mentre que les larves decapitades (larves sense cervell ni corpora allata, (CA)) pupen, les larves de les que s'ha privat del cervell (però s'ha mantingut el CA) sofreixen sovint varies mudes successives; la primera muda pot ser de larva o pupa segons l'edat a la que la larva ha estat privada del cervell i el fotoperíode al qual la larva s'ha desenvolupat. Moltes de les larves L6 privades del cervell un dia després de la muda van mudar a larva independentment de les condicions de fotoperíode durant el desenvolupament, de dia llarg (DL) o curt (DC), mentre que 5 dies després totes les larves desenvolupades en DL van pupar i les de la mateixa edat però desenvolupades en DC van mudar a larva. Els implants de cervell acceleren les mudes a pupa però no alteren les mudes a larva. S. nonagrioides no sembla tenir cap font alternativa als CA de hormona juvenil (HJ). Les larves decapitades no van mostrar quantitats significades de HJ mentre que les larves privades de cervell van mostrar concentracions que es poden detectar fins i tot 10 dies després de la manipulació quirúrgica, però els implants de cervell no activen els CA essent aparentment neural l'activació d'aquests factors. El cervell podria ser el responsable del manteniment de l'estat larvari per inhibició neural de la pupació; quan les larves d'edat variada van ser privades del cervell, la majoria van pupar. De manera similar, el cervell també podria ser el responsable del manteniment de la diapausa per inhibició de la pupació, conseqüentment, quan les larves van ser privades del cervell (tot mantenint o no els CA) les diferencies entre larves dipausants o no diapausants van desaparèixer.El nivell d'ecdisteroides en les larves decapitades augmentà 10 dies després de la manipulació, aproximadament el temps necessari per a pupar en aquelles larves en absència de HJ, encara que l'extracció de les GPs va impedir la muda, i això probà que la presencia de GPs és essencial per al procés de muda. Les GPs en les larves de S. nonagrioides poden funcionar sense estimulació del cervell i la PTTH pot ser alliberada per una font de fora del cap; a S. nonagrioides hem identificat la PTTH mRNA i una font alternativa en l'intestí. La qPCR confirmà que el gen de la PTTH a S. nonagrioides s'expressa molt al cervell de l'instar 6è amb un màxim al dia 5è i un mínim en la prepupa, però el nivell d'expressió de la PTTH es va detectar també en l'intestí de les larves intactes i encara més en el de las decapitades amb una expressió màxima en la prepupa.La més gran part de les larves decapitades muden a pupa sense cap senyal de desenvolupament d'adult mentre que la majoria de pupes provades de cervell sofreixen metamorfosi a adult, lo que suggereix que la transformació de pupa a adult depèn d'un factor desconegut present en les larves privades de cervell però no en les decapitades. En S. nonagrioides la HJ aplicada tòpicament no solament no va inhibir la metamorfosi de pupa a adult però la pogué haver afavorit mentre que l'aplicació d'un agonista d'ecdisteroides a les pupes no va tenir cap efecte en el desenvolupament d'adult.La ingestió per les larves de S. nonagrioides de quantitats subletals de la proteïna Cry1Ab continguda en les fulles de panís o en la dieta va produir un perllongament del seu desenvolupament acompanyat d'un augment en el nombre de mudes abans de pupar però només en les larves criades en condicions de DL, no en les criades en condicions DC. Aquests resultats són deguts a un augment del nivell de HJ en la hemolimfa de les larves no diapausants (DL) alimentades amb fulles de panís Bt o amb la proteïna Bt afegida a la dieta; pel contrari, no es va detectar el possible lleuger increment de HJ causat per la ingestió de la proteïna Bt en les larves diapausants (DC). A més, l'efecte de la proteïna Bt en la concentració d'ecdisteroides en les larves no diapausants va ser suprimir l'augment de la hormona que era necessari per la pupació i per tant va retardar la pupació en les larves tractades. Aquestes respostes poden ser considerades com un mecanisme de defensa que permet que algunes larves puguin mudar i sobreviure a la ingestió de la toxina. / Los resultados de esta Tesis ponen de manifiesto el papel del cerebro en el control del desarrollo larvario de Sesamia nonagrioides. Así, S. nonagrioides es el primer lepidóptero en el que se demuestra que el desarrollo de larva a adulto puede producirse sin la presencia del cerebro. Nuestros datos demuestran que aunque las mudas dependen de la liberación de ecdisteroides por las glándulas protorácicas (GPs), estas pueden ser activadas sin hormona protoracicotrópica (PTTH) del cerebro.Mientras que las larvas decapitadas (larvas sin cerebro ni corpora allata, (CA)) pupan, las larvas descerebradas, de las que se ha extraído el cerebro pero mantienen el CA, sufren a menudo varias mudas sucesivas, la primera a otra larva o pupa según la edad a la que la larva ha sido desprovista del cerebro y según el fotoperiodo bajo el cual la larva se había desarrollado. Muchas larvas desprovistas del cerebro un día después de la muda a sexto estadio mudan a larva independientemente de las condiciones de fotoperiodo, día largo (DL) o corto (DC), recibidas durante su desarrollo, mientras que 5 días después todas las larvas desarrolladas en día largo puparán y las de la misma edad pero desarrolladas en día corto mudaran a larva. Los implantes de cerebro aceleran las mudas a pupa pero no alteran las mudas a larva. S. nonagrioides no parece tener ninguna fuente de hormona juvenil (HJ) alternativa a los CA. Las larvas decapitadas no mostraron cantidades significativas de HJ mientras que las desprovistas de cerebro mostraron cantidades de HJ detectables incluso 10 días después de la manipulación quirúrgica indicando así que los CA siguieron liberando HJ en ausencia del cerebro. Los implantes de cerebro no activaron los CA por lo que su activación es aparentemente neural. El cerebro debe ser el responsable del mantenimiento del estado larvario por inhibición neural de la pupación ya que cuando se extrajo el cerebro a larvas de diferentes edades la mayoría puparon. De manera similar, el cerebro también debe ser el responsable del mantenimiento de la diapausa ya que cuando las larvas fueron desprovistas del cerebro (manteniendo o no los CA) las diferencias entre larvas dipausantes o no diapausantes desaparecieron.El nivel de ecdisteroides en las larvas decapitadas aumentó 10 días después de la extracción del cerebro, este tiempo es aproximadamente el tiempo que las larvas de último estadio larvario necesitan para pupar. La extracción de las GPs impidió la muda, lo que demuestra que su presencia es esencial para que tenga lugar el proceso de la muda. Ante la evidencia de que las GPs de las larvas de S. nonagrioides podían activarse sin la estimulación por hormona PTTH del cerebro se buscaron fuentes alternativas de la hormona y se identificó PTTH mRNA en el intestino de la larva. La qPCR confirmó que el gen de la PTTH en S. nonagrioides se expresa de forma elevada en el cerebro de la larva de 6º estadio con un máximo el 5º día del mismo y un mínimo en la prepupa, pero la expresión de la PTTH se detectó también en el intestino de las larvas intactas y mucho más en las decapitadas con máxima expresión en el periodo de prepupa.De forma general se asume que la metamorfosis pupa-adulto en los insectos se produce en ausencia de HJ y en el caso de S. nonagrioides la mayoría de las larvas decapitadas mudan a pupa sin mostrar posteriormente ningún indicio de desarrollo a adulto mientras que la mayoría de pupas desprovistas de cerebro pero que mantiene su CA sufren metamorfosis a adulto. Este hecho sugirió que la transformación de pupa a adulto en esta especie depende de algún factor presente en las larvas descerebradas pero no en las decapitadas. En S. nonagrioides la HJ aplicada tópicamente no solamente no inhibió la metamorfosis de pupa a adulto sino que la favoreció mientras que la aplicación de un agonista de ecdisteroides a las pupas no tuvo efecto sobre el desarrollo a adulto.La ingestión por las larvas de S. nonagrioides de cantidades subletales de la proteína Cry1Ab contenida en hoja de maíz o en dieta produjo un prolongamiento de su desarrollo acompañado de un aumento en el número de mudas larvarias antes de pupar, pero sólo en las larvas desarrolladas en condiciones de DL, no en las desarrolladas en condiciones de DC. Estos resultados son consecuencia del aumento de HJ en la hemolinfa de las larvas no diapausantes alimentadas con hoja de maíz Bt o con la proteína Bt añadida. Sin embargo, no se detectó el posible ligero aumento de HJ causado por la ingestión de la proteína Bt en las larvas diapausantes (desarrolladas en DC). Otro efecto de la ingestión de la proteína Bt en las larvas no-diapausantes fue suprimir el aumento en la concentración de ecdisteroides necesario para la pupación que por tanto se retrasó en las larvas tratadas. Estas respuestas pueden ser consideradas como un mecanismo de defensa que permite que algunas larvas puedan mudar y así sobrevivir a la ingestión de la toxina. / The results of this Thesis highlight the role of brain in the control of larval development in Sesamia nonagrioides. Thus, S. nonagrioides is the first lepidopteran found to develop from larvae to adult without brain. Our data show that molts depend on the release of ecdysteroids by prothoracic glands (PGs) but they can occur without prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) from the brain.While all decapitated larvae (larvae without brain nor corpora allata, (CA)) pupate, the debrained larvae (larvae with no brain but with CA) often undergo several successive molts; first molt could be to larva or pupa, depending on the age at which the larva has been debrained and on the photoperiod under which the larvae have developed: many of the L6 larvae debrained 1 day after molting, molted to larvae independently of the photoperiod conditions of development, long (LD) or short (SD) day, but 5 days later all larvae developed under LD conditions pupated whereas larvae of the same age developd under SD conditions molted to larvae. Brain implants slightly accelerate pupal molts but do not alter the timing of larval molts. S. nonagrioides does not seem to have any alternative source of juvenile hormone (JH) to the CA. Decapitated larvae did not show noticeable amounts of JH while debrained larvae showed detectable concentrations of JH still 10 days after the surgical manipulation but the brain implants do not activate CA, apparently being neural the activation of these factors. The brain might be responsible for larval stage maintenance by neural inhibition of pupation; when the larvae of any age were deprived of their brain, the majority pupated. In the same way, the brain might be also responsible of diapause maintenance by neural inhibition of pupation; consequently, when the larvae were deprived of their brain (maintaining or not their CA) differences between diapausing and non-diapausing larvae disappeared.The level of ecdysteroids in the decapitated larvae increased ten days after manipulation, approximately the time needed to pupate in these larvae in absence of JH, but the removal of PGs prevented molting, proving that the presence of PGs is essential for the molting process. The PGs of S. nonagrioides larvae can function without brain stimulation and PTTH could be released by a source outside the head; in S. nonagrioides we have identified the PTTH mRNA and an alternative PTTH source in the gut. The qPCR confirmed that the PTTH gene of S. nonagrioides is strongly expressed in the brain of the 6th instar with a maximum on day 5 and a minimum in prepupa, but the level of PTTH expression was also detected in the gut of intact and even more in decapitated larvae with a maximum expression in prepupa.Most decapitated larvae molt to pupa with no sign of adult development while the majority of debrained pupae suffer metamorphosis to adult thus suggesting that pupal-adult transformation depends on an unknown factor present in the debrained but not in the decapitated larvae. In S. nonagrioides JH applied topically not only did not inhibit the pupal-adult metamorphosis but could have favored it while the application of an ecdysteroids agonist to the pupae had no effect on the adult development.Ingestion by S. nonagrioides larvae of sub-lethal amounts of Cry1Ab protein contained in maize leaves or the diet produced a prolonged development accompanied by an increase in the number of molts before pupating only in the larvae reared under LD conditions but not in the larvae reared under SD conditions. These results are due to an increase of the level of JH in the hemolymph in the non-diapausing larvae fed with Bt maize leaves or with Bt protein in the diet; on the contrary, in diapausing (SD) larvae the possible low increase of JH due to the Bt toxin ingested was not detected. In addition, the effect of Bt toxin on the ecdysteroids titer in non diapausing larvae was to suppress the increase of the hormone necessary for the pupation of and thus delaying pupation in the treated larvae. These responses may be considered as a defense mechanism allowing some larvae to molt and to survive to the toxin ingestion.

En la present memòria de tesi doctoral es presenten els resultats de diferents estudis realitzatsamb diferents compostos químics anàlegs de les feromones sexuals dels principalsbarrinadors del blat de moro (S. nonagrioides i O. nubilalis), tot avaluant la seva activitat com aantagonistes de la resposta feromonal, o com a inhibidors del catabolisme de la feromona endiferent tipologia d'assaigs (tant de camp com de laboratori).Els compostos de tipus trifluorometilcetona més similars al component majoritari de la feromonasexual d'O. nubilalis mostren un remarcable efecte inhibidor en túnel de vent. En assaigs decamp, disminueixen significativament el nombre de captures de mascles en comparació amb laferomona, quan són evaporats amb aquesta en una proporció d'1:10. A més, aquestscompostos també són bons inhibidors d'esterases antenals.En assaigs de confusió sexual en camp, utilitzant la trifluorometilcetona anàloga al componentmajoritari de la feromona sexual de S. nonagrioides s'ha observat una reducció en el nombrede plantes atacades i en el nombre de larves per planta, no només per aquesta espècie sinótambé en el cas d'O. nubilalis.Una altra tipologia de compostos anàlegs estudiada, les metilcetones, també han mostrat unaalta activitat, similar a les trifluorometilcetones, en assaigs de túnel de vent, en assaigsd'electrofisiologia i en captures en trampes. En aquest cas, les metilcetones, no són bonsinhibidors d'esterases antenals en comparació amb les trifluorometilcetones.L'activitat d'aquests anàlegs feromonals (anàleg trifluorometilcetona i metilcetona) s'hacomparat amb un inhibidor natural, el (Z)-11-hexadecenal (Z11-16:Ald), tot analitzant lescaracterístiques i els paràmetres del vol de mascles d'O. nubilalis exposats a aquestsproductes en túnel de vent. Els resultats demostren que tot i que els tres inhibidors redueixende forma similar el percentatge de contactes, aquesta reducció és deguda a mecanismesfisiològics d'inhibició diferents.També s'han realitzat col·leccions de compostos volàtils de panís en dos períodes del diadiferents (matí i nit) i amb plantes estressades, tot identificant els compostos químics mésabundants en les diferents condicions assajades, alhora que s'ha determinat l'activitatelectrofisiològica d'aquests i altres compostos emesos per diferents plantes hoste d'O. nubilalis,així com en assaigs de doble elecció en olfactòmetre amb la idea de trobar compostosfisiològicament actius ja sigui com a atraients o bé com a repel·lents d'aquesta espècie. / En la presente memoria de tesis doctoral se presentan los resultados de distintos estudiosrealizados con diferentes compuestos químicos análogos de las feromonas sexuales de losprincipales taladros del maíz (S. nonagrioides y O. nubilalis), evaluando su actividad comoantagonistas de la respuesta feromonal o bien como inhibidores del catabolismo de laferomona en distintos tipos de ensayos (tanto en ensayos de campo como de laboratorio).Los compuestos de tipo trifluorometilcetona más similares al componente mayoritario de laferomona sexual de O. nubilalis muestran un notable efecto inhibidor en túnel de viento. Enensayos de campo, disminuyen significativamente el número de machos capturados encomparación con la feromona cuando son evaporados con ésta en una proporción de 1:10.Además, estos compuestos también son buenos inhibidores de esterasas antenales.En ensayos de confusión sexual en campo utilizando la trifluorometilcetona análoga alcomponente mayoritario de la feromona sexual de S. nonagrioides se ha observado unareducción en el número de plantas atacadas y en el número de larvas por planta, no sólo paraesta especie sino también en el caso de O. nubilalis.Otra tipología de compuestos análogos estudiada, las metilcetonas, también han mostrado unaalta actividad, similar a la mostrada por las trifluorometilcetonas, en ensayos de túnel de viento,en ensayos de electrofisiología y en capturas en trampas. En este caso, las metilcetones, noson buenos inhibidores de esterasas antenales en comparación con las trifluorometilcetonas.La actividad de estos análogos feromonales (análogo trifluorometilcetona y metilcetona) se hacomparado con la actividad de un inhibidor natural, el (Z)-11-hexadecenal (Z11-16:Ald),mediante el análisis de las características y los parámetros del vuelo de machos de O. nubilalisexpuestos a estos productos en túnel de viento. Los resultados demuestran que aunque lostres inhibidores reducen de forma similar el porcentaje de contactos, esta reducción se debe amecanismos fisiológicos de inhibición distintos.También se han realizado colecciones de compuestos volátiles en plantas de maíz en dosperíodos del día distintos (mañana y noche) y también con plantas estresadas, identificando loscompuestos químicos más abundantes en las distintas condiciones ensayadas, a la vez que seha determinado la actividad electrofisiológica de estos y otros compuestos emitidos pordistintas plantas huésped de O. nubilalis, así como en ensayos de doble elección enolfactómetro con la idea de encontrar compuestos fisiológicamente activos ya sea comoatrayentes o como repelentes de esta especie. / The present doctoral thesis report contains the results of different studies with different chemicalanalogues of the main corn borers (S. nonagrioides and O. nubilalis) sex pheromonecompounds to assess their activity as pheromonal antagonists or as pheromone catabolisminhibitors in different types of tests (field and laboratory test).The trifluoromethylketone compound-type more similar to the main sex pheromone compoundof O. nubilalis has shown a remarkable inhibitory effect on wind tunnel. In field trials, thesecompounds have shown a significantly decreasing of the number of males caught in trapscompared with the pheromone when they were co-evaporated with it in a ratio of 1:10. Inaddition, these compounds are also good antennal esterase inhibitors.Using the trifluoromethylketone more similar to the main S. nonagrioides sex pheromonecompound in field tests has been observed a reduction in the number of plants attacked and inthe number of larvae per plant, not only for this species but also in O. nubilalis.The methylketones, another of the studied analogue compounds, have also shown a highactivity, similar to the results obtained with the trifluoromethylketones in wind tunnel,electrophysiological, and field tests. In this case, the methylketones are not good antennalesterase inhibitors compared with trifluoromethylketones compounds.The activity of these pheromone analogues (trifluoromethylketones and methylketones) hasbeen compared with the one showed by the natural inhibitor Z-11-hexadecenal (Z11-16:Ald) byanalyzing flight parameters of O. nubilalis males exposed to these products. The results showedthat although the three inhibitors reduced similarly the percentage of contacts in wind tunnel,this reduction is due to different physiological mechanisms of inhibition.We have also made collections of volatile compounds from corn plants in two different periodsof the day (morning and night) and also with stressed corn plants. We have identified the vastmajority of the chemical compounds. Electrophysiological activity of these and other compoundsemitted by different host plants of O. nubilalis has also been determined and dual-choice testsin olfactometer has been performed with the idea of finding physiologically active compoundseither as attractants or repellents for this species.

Η παρούσα μεταπτυχιακή εργασία εκπονήθηκε στο πλαίσιο του Διατμηματικού Προγράμματος Μεταπτυχιακών Σπουδών «Ιατρική Χημεία: Σχεδιασμός και Ανάπτυξη Φαρμακευτικών Προϊόντων». Σκοπός αυτής της έρευνας ήταν η διερεύνηση της επίδραση του εκχυλίσματος κρόκου τόσο στην αύξηση όσο και στην αποτελεσματικότητα των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων επί των προνυμφών του λεπιδοπτέρου Sesamia nonangrioides. Στην παρούσα μελέτη χρησιμοποιήθηκαν οι εντομοπαθογόνοι μύκητες Beauveria bassiana Balsamo (Vuillemin) (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), Metarhizium robertsii (Metchnikoff) Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) και Isaria fumosorosea (Wize) Brown & Smith (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) από την συλλογή του Μπενακείου Φυτοπαθολογικού Ινστιτούτου των οποίων η διατήρηση έγινε στο εργαστήριο Φυσιολογίας Φυτών του τμήματος Βιολογίας με την μέθοδο των ημιεκλεκτικών υποστρωμάτων (Strasser et al. 1996). Στύλοι του καλλιεργούμενου Crocus sativus εκχυλίστηκαν με διάλυμα 50% v/v μεθανόλης σε νερό (3 mL/50 mg ξηρής δρόγης) για 4 h απουσία φωτός. Οι παραπάνω εντομοπαθογόνοι μύκητες καλλιεργήθηκαν σε τρυβλία petri με θρεπτικό υλικό Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (S.D.A.) για διάστημα 5 ημερών παρουσία (3,0% v/v) και απουσία (100% S.D.A. αλλά και 98,5% S.D.A. - 1,5% μεθανόλης) εκχυλίσματος. Μετά το πέρας, διαπιστώθηκε ότι η παρουσία της μεθανόλης σε αυτήν τη συγκέντρωση δεν επηρέασε την ανάπτυξη κανενός μύκητα. Περαιτέρω, οι εντομοπαθογόνοι μύκητες B. bassiana και I. fumosorosea δεν επηρεάστηκαν από την παρουσία του εκχυλίσματος κρόκου στο υπόστρωμα ανάπτυξης, ενώ ο εντομοπαθογόνος μύκητας M. robertsii επηρεάστηκε θετικά (P<0,05, τεστ Bonferoni) από την παρουσία του εκχυλίσματος. Επιπροσθέτως μελετήθηκε η επίδραση του εκχυλίσματος κρόκου στην αποτελεσματικότητα των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων επί των προνυμφών του εντόμου S. nonangrioides.. Για κάθε εντομοπαθογόνο μύκητα παρασκευάστηκαν τρεις συγκεντρώσεις (106, 107, 108 κονίδια/mL) ενώ η θνησιμότητα των προνυμφών καταγραφόταν καθημερινά για 7 ημέρες. Oι εντομοπαθογόνοι μύκητες προκάλεσαν υψηλά ποσοστά θνησιμότητας στις προνύμφες του εντόμου ιδιαίτερα ο I. fumosorosea (υπόστρωμα μόνο S.D.A) προκάλεσε θνησιμότητα του S. nonangrioides που κυμάνθηκε από 80 έως 93%. Η παρουσία του εκχυλίσματος κρόκου στο υπόστρωμα αύξησε σημαντικά (P<0,05, test Bonferoni) τη θνησιμότητα του εντόμου (80-96%) ένεκα του εντομοπαθογόνου μύκητα M. robertsii. Η σημαντική θετική επίδραση του εκχυλίσματος κρόκου στην αύξηση και την αποτελεσματικότητα του εντομοπαθογόνου μύκητα M. robertsii επί των προνυμφών του S. nonangrioides χρήζουν περαιτέρω διερεύνησης ως προς τους μηχανισμούς με τους οποίους επετεύχθη αλλά και ανοίγουν νέους δρόμους ως προς την ανάπτυξη νέων μεθόδων βιολογικής καλλιέργεια. / This thesis was produced as part of the Interdepartmental Graduate Program entitled “Medicinal Chemistry: Design and Development of Medicinal Products”. The intention of this thesis was to study the effect of saffron extract at the growth of entomopathogenic fungi in semi selective substrates and at the efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi on larvae of the insect S. nonangrioides. This study used Beauveria bassiana Balsamo (Vuillemin) (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), Metarhizium robertsii (Metchnikoff) Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) and Isaria fumosorosea (Wize) Brown & Smith (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) from the collection of the Benaki Phytopathological Institute and maintain with the selective medium method in laboratory of Plant Physiology at the Department of Biology (Strasser et al. 1996). Saffron (stigmas of Crocus sativus) was extracted with methanol:water 1:1, v/v (3 mL/50 mg dry plant material) for 4 h in the absence of light. Entomopathogenic fungi were cultured in petri dishes with Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (S.D.A.) for 5 days in the presence (3.0%, v/v) and absence (100% S.D.A. and 98,5% S.D.A. -1,5% methanol) of saffron extract. Methanol in the culture medium did not affect fungal growth at the particular concentration. After the five days, entomopathogenic fungi B. bassiana and I. fumosorosea were not affected by the presence of saffron extract in the growing medium, whereas M. robertsii growth was influenced positively (P<0.05, Bonferoni test) by the presence of saffron extract. In addition, the effect of saffron extract on the efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi on larvae of S. nonangrioides was studied. For each entomopathogenic fungus three concentrations (106, 107, 108 conidia/mL) were used, while the mortality of larvae was recorded daily for 7 days. Entomopathogenic fungi caused high mortality in larvae of the insect; particularly I. fumosorosea (substrate SDA) induced mortality ranging from 80 to 93%. Saffron in the culture medium of M. robertsii significantly (P<0.05, Bonferoni test) increased insect mortality (80 to 96%). The significant positive effect of saffron in the semi-selective substrate on the growth and effectiveness of M. robertsii on S. nonangrioides larvae demand further investigation of the mechanisms of action and pose new dimension in the use of biological agents.

Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας ήταν να μελετηθεί η επίδραση των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων Beauveria bassiana Balsamo (Vuillemin) (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), Metarhizium robertsii (Metchnikoff) Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) και Isaria fumosorosea (Wize) Brown & Smith (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae), πουαπομονώθηκαν από ελληνικά εδάφη, επί του κυριότερου και πιο επιβλαβούς εχθρού της καλλιέργειας του γλυκού σόργου, του λεπιδόπτερου Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefebvre) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Μελετήθηκε στο εργαστήριο η επίδραση έξι στελεχών των παραπάνω μυκήτων στην επιβίωση των προνυμφών του εντόμου. Τα στελέχη των μυκήτων προκάλεσαν υψηλή θνησιμότητα στις προνύμφες του εντόμου, που κυμάνθηκε σε ποσοστά από 78%-98%. Αποτελεσματικότερα στελέχη ήταν τα B. bassiana (ΙΓΕ3), M. robertsii (Elateridae) και I. fumosorosea (Άγιος Στέφανος). Αυτές οι τρείς απομονώσεις επιλέχθηκαν προκειμένου να εξεταστεί η επίδραση της πυκνότητας των κονιδιακών εναιωρημάτων στη θνησιμότητα των προνυμφών. Καταγράφηκαν ποσοστά θνησιμότητας 7%-93% σε σχέση με την πυκνότητα των κονιδιακών εναιωρημάτων επί των προνυμφών. Διαπιστώθηκε ότι η ικανότητα που παρουσιάζουν οι εντομοπαθογόνοι μύκητες στον έλεγχο της επιβίωσης προνυμφών του εντόμου ήταν ανάλογη της χρησιμοποιημένης πυκνότητας των κονιδιακών εναιωρημάτων. Επίσης, μελετήθηκε η αλληλεπίδραση των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων B. bassiana (ΙΓΕ3) και M. robertsii (Elateridae) με εμπορικό σκεύασμα Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki όσον αφορά τη θανάτωση προνυμφών του εντόμου S. nonagrioides. Η θνησιμότητα των προνυμφών καταγράφηκε καθημερινά για δεκαέξι ημέρες και κυμάνθηκε από 56-100% για τον M robertsii μαζί με το B thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki και 54-100% για τον B. bassiana μαζί με το βάκιλο. Επίσης, η συνδυασμένη δράση των μικροοργανισμών υπολογίστηκε για την όγδοη, δέκατη τρίτη και τη δέκατη έκτη μέρα και βρέθηκε προσθετική στους περισσότερους συνδιασμούς για την δέκατη τρίτη και δέκατη έκτη μέρα ενώ την όγδοη μέρα η συνδυαστική δράση των παθογόνων βρέθηκε αρνητική στους περισσότερους συνδιασμούς και χαρακτηρίζεται ως ανταγωνιστική. Η ανάπτυξη των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων όταν καλλιεργήθηκαν σε θρεπτικό υπόστρωμα που περιείχε υδατικό διάλυμα B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, δεν επηρεάστηκε από την παρουσία του βακτηρίου. Ο συνδυασμός του B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki με τους εντομοπαθογόνους μύκητες που εξετάσαμε είχε ως αποτέλεσμα να αυξηθεί η θνησιμότητα των προνυμφών του S. nonagrioides. Τα στελέχη ΙΓΕ3, Elateridae και Άγιος Στέφανος των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων B. bassiana, M. robertsii και I. fumosorosea αντίστοιχα, δοκιμάστηκαν επί των προνυμφών του S. nonagrioides σε τρεις κονιδιακές συγκεντρώσεις και μελετήθηκε η επίδρασή τους στην πρόσληψη τροφής, στην κατανάλωση τροφής και στην ανάπτυξη των προνυμφών. Παρατηρήθηκε μείωση της πρόσληψης τροφής από προνύμφες 3ης προνυμφικής ηλικίας σε ποσοστά 41-81%, μείωση του βάρους τους κατά 29-45% και μείωση των απορριμάτων κατά 46-81%. Παρατηρήθηκε επίσης ελάττωση της σχετικής ταχύτητας ανάπτυξης των προνυμφών κατά 31-72% και της σχετικής ταχύτητας κατανάλωσης τροφής κατά 12-35%. Τέλος, ο δείκτης πεπτικότητας, ο δείκτης μετατροπής της προσληφθείσας τροφής και ο δείκτης μετατροπής της αφομοιωμένης τροφής ήταν υψηλότεροι σε σχέση με τους αντίστοιχους του μάρτυρα. Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα υποδεικνύουν ενδεχομένως ότι η μόλυνση από τους εντομοπαθογόνους μύκητες προκαλεί επιδείνωση σε ορισμένες τροφικές διεργασίες της προνύμφης που θα μπορούσαν να οδηγήσουν στην υπονόμευσή της από ασιτία. Επίσης πραγματοποιήθηκαν πειράματα στο πεδίο προκείμενου να μελετηθεί η επίδραση της ενδοφυτικής παρουσίας των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων B. bassiana, M. robertsii και I. fumosorosea στις προνύμφες του εντόμου S. nonagrioides in planta. Kαι οι τρείς μύκητες έδρασαν αποτρεπτικά απέναντι στην προσπάθεια των προνυμφών να εισέλθουν στο στέλεχος του φυτού. Οι προνύμφες της 4ης προνυμφικής ηλικίας που πέτυχαν να εγκατασταθούν στο στέλεχος των φυτών δημιούργησαν στοές μικρότερου μήκους παρουσία των μυκήτων, και η θνησιμότητά τους ήταν μεγαλύτερη, επιβεβαιώνοντας τα αποτελέσματα των in vitro πειραμάτων. Ως προς τις επιπτώσεις της παρουσίας των ενδοφύτων στο φυτό ξενιστή, η επίδραση της παρουσίας των μυκήτων στην ανάπτυξη, την τελική βιομάζα και την κατανομή της βιομάζας σε υπέργειους ή υπόγειους ιστούς των φυτών καταγράφηκε ως ουδέτερη. Η συγκέντρωση της χλωροφύλλης και η περιεκτικότητα σε νερό δεν παρουσίασαν μεταβολές που μπορούν να αποδοθούν στην παρουσία των ενδοφύτων. Ωστόσο, ορισμένες παράμετροι της φωτοσυνθετικής διαδικασίας (καθαρή φωτοσύνθεση, ταχύτητα ροής ηλεκτρονίων, η πιθανότητα μετατροπής της συλληφθείσας ενέργειας σε ροή ηλεκτρονίων, η πιθανότητα μεταφοράς ηλεκτρονίων από τους ενδιάμεσους φορείς μέχρι την αναγωγή των τελικών υποδοχέων στο PSI και ο δείκτης ζωτικότητας της φωτοσυνθετικής συσκευής PItotal) επηρεάστηκαν αρνητικά μετά την προσβολή των στελεχών του σόργου από τις προνύμφες του εντόμου. Η ενδοφυτική παρουσία των μυκήτων B. bassiana και M. robertsii απέτρεψε τις παραπάνω αρνητικές επιδράσεις. Τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας διατριβής προσφέρουν ισχυρές ενδείξεις για επιτυχή χρησιμοποίηση ορισμένων στελεχών των εντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων στον έλεγχο των προνυμφών του εντόμου S. nonagrioides τόσο στο εργαστήριο όσο και στο πεδίο. Επίσης, θα ήταν ενδιαφέρουσα η περαιτέρω μελέτη της χρήσης αυτών τωνεντομοπαθογόνων μυκήτων κάτω από συνθήκες μειωμένης διαθεσιμότητας νερού. / The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana Balsamo (Vuillemin) (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), Metarhizium robertsii (Metchnikoff) Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) and Isaria fumosorosea (Wize) Brown & Smith (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae), isolated from Greek soils against the main and most damaging pest of sweet sorghum, Mediterranean corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefebvre) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Laboratory studies were performed to determine the effect of six strains of the above fungi on survival of larvae of S. nonagrioides. All strains of fungi causing high mortality among larvae, killed 78 - 98% of exposed larvae. The most effective were B. bassiana (IGE3), M. robertsii (Elateridae) and I. fumosorosea (Agios Stefanos). These three isolates were selected to examine the effect several conidial suspensions on the mortality of larvae. Recorded mortality was from 7% - 93% depending on the density of conidial suspensions used on larvae. From the above results was found that the capability provided by the entomopathogenic fungi to control the insect was according by the density of the conidial suspensions. Also, the interactions between commercial B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki and two entomopathogenic fungi were examined on larvae of S. nonagrioides in 8, 13 and 16 days post-treatment intervals. An overall positive interaction between the pathogens was observed and larval mortality at 16 days was 56–100% exposed to M. robertsii combined with B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, whereas B. bassiana combined with B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki killed 54–100 % of exposed larvae. After 8 days, in 6 of the combinations, we found an additive relationship between the pathogens, whereas, a negative interaction was observed in 10 of them. In contrast, after 13 days, we observed a positive interaction in two combinations, which could be considered as synergistic, additive in ten combinations and negative in only four combinations. Finally, after 16 days, in eleven combinations we found an additive interaction, whereas negative interaction was recorded in five of them. We conclude that application of combined pathogens may be more effective for S.nonagrioides control. The strains IGE3, Elateridae and Agios Stefanos of B. bassiana, M. robertsii and I. fumosorosea respectively, were tested for their effectiveness on larval food intake, food consumption and larvae growth at three conidial concentrations. We observed a decrease in food intake by the larvae ranged between 41 and 81%, reduced larvae weight from 29 to 45% and reduced production of wastes from 46 to 81%. We also recorded significant differences in the relative growth rate of larvae, the relative consumption rate of larvae, the index digestibility, the conversion ratio of ingested food and the conversion ratio of assimilated food between infected and control individuals. Therefore, it is possible that infection of larvae by the fungi has an adverse effect on physiological and metabolic processes, which results in larva starvation. Subsequently, we performed experiments in the field, in order to investigate the plant–endophyte association behavior using B. bassiana, M. robertsii and I. fumosorosea, as well as the impact of these associations on larva activity when in planta and under environmental conditions. All three fungal species significantly prevented larvae from entering into plants’ stalk. Statistically significant differences were also observed in the length of tunnels created by larvae in the stem of the plant and in their mortality for individuals infected by the entomopathogenic fungi. These results confirm our findings of the in vitro experiments. Regarding the effect of endophytes on the host plant, a neutral impact was recorded for the development, final biomass and distribution of biomass to the aboveground and underground plant tissues. Temporary changes of chlorophyll concentration and leaf water content stability throughout the experimental period should not be attributed to the presence of endophytes. However, some aspects of the photosynthetic process (net photosynthesis, electron transport rate, as well as parameters of the photosynthetic machinery relative to electron flow round the two photosystems) negatively affected after infection of plants by the larvae. The presence of B. bassiana and M. robertsii ameliorated these adverse effects. The results of this study are strongly indicative of successful usage of certain fungi strains for biological control of S. nonagrioides larvae both in laboratory conditions and in the field.

The environmental impacts of genetically modified (GM) crop plants such as Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) maize have not yet been fully assessed in South Africa. Bt maize designed to express Bt endotoxin for control of Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is planted on approximately 1.103 million hectares in South Africa. The monitoring of GM crops after release is important in order to assess and evaluate possible environmental effects. No risk assessment for Bt maize was done in South Africa before its release in 1998 and no targeted post-release monitoring of possible resistance development or impact on non-target species have been done. Awareness has risen in South Africa through research highlighting the possible effects GM crops may have. The aim of this study was to determine, through feeding experiments, the effects of Bt maize on selected non-target Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera species that occur in maize agro-ecosystems in South Africa. Results provide information for use in future risk assessment studies on Bt maize and indicate which species could possibly be of importance in post-release monitoring of Bt maize. Priority insect species were identified and laboratory- and semifield experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of Bt maize on these species. In the light of the reportedly lower toxicity of Bt maize to certain noctuid borers, the effect of Bt maize was evaluated on Sesamia calamistis (Hampson), Agrotis segetum (Denis & Schiffermüller), and Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner). Feeding studies were also conducted to determine the effect of Bt maize on non-target Coleoptera, i.e. Heteronychus arator Fabricius (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and Somaticus angulatus (Fahraeus) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). The effect of indirect exposure of the stem borer parasitoid Sturmiopsis parasitica (Curran) (Diptera: Tachinidae) to Bt toxin was evaluated to determine if there is any effect when it parasitizes Bt-resistant B. fusca larvae that have fed on Bt maize. Results from the study conducted with S. calamistis indicated that Bt maize of both events (Bt11 and MON810) were highly toxic to S. calamistis. The behavioural characteristic of S. calamistis to feed behind leaf sheaths and to enter stems directly did not result in escape of exposure to the toxin. Larval feeding on leaf sheaths therefore resulted in the ingestion of sufficient toxin to kill larvae before they entered maize stems. Results showed that the effect of Cry1Ab toxin on the biology of A. segetum larvae and moths were largely insignificant. Whorl leaves were observed to be an unsuitable food source for H. armigera larvae and larval growth was poor. No larvae survived to the pupal stage on any of the Bt maize treatments. When feeding on maize ears H. armigera larval mass increased on non-Bt maize whereas no increase occurred on Bt maize. The feeding study conducted with Coleoptera showed that the effect of Bt maize on H. arator and S. angulatus was insignificant and no differences were observed in any of the parameters measured for the two species. Although not always significant, the percentage parasitism of Bt-consuming host larvae by S. parasitica was always higher compared to host larvae that fed on non-Bt maize. It could be that Bt toxin affects B. fusca fitness to such an extent that the immune systems of host larvae were less effective. The different parameters tested for S. parasitica indicated only one case where fly maggots originating from diapause host larvae feeding on non-Bt maize had a greater mass compared to host larvae that fed on Bt maize. The same applied to S. parasitica pupal length. For other parameters tested there were no significant differences. Sesamia calamistis is stenophagous and occurs in mixed populations with other borer species. It was therefore concluded that the ecological impact of local extinctions of S. calamistis caused by Bt maize is not expected to be great. Bt maize will most likely not have any significant effect on the control of A. segetum under field conditions. The feeding study conducted with H. armigera quantified the effects of Bt maize on this species and provided important information on the potential of Bt maize as protection against this polyphagous pest. However, the likelihood of H. armigera becoming an important secondary pest is high. It can be concluded that the Cry1Ab toxin targeting lepidopteran pests will not have adverse effects on H. arator or S. angulatus. Although some adverse effects were observed on S. parasitica mass and pupal length it is most likely that this will not contribute to adverse effects in the field, but that there rather be synergism between Bt maize and S. parasitica. An ecological approach was followed in which the potential effects of exposure of priority species to Bt toxin in maize was investigated. A series of selection matrixes were developed in which each of the above mentioned species was ranked for its maximum potential exposure to Bt toxin by assessing it occurrence, abundance, presence and linkage in the maize ecosystem. Through the use of these selection matrixes, knowledge gaps were identified for future research and to guide the design of ecologically realistic experiments. This study contributes to knowledge regarding the possible effects of Bt maize on the most economically important non-target pests in South Africa. There is, however, a need to evaluate other non-target species in feeding studies, as well as in field studies. From this study it can be concluded that some species can be eliminated from further testing since Bt maize had no adverse effect while more research have to be conducted on other species. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Environmental Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The environmental impacts of genetically modified (GM) crop plants such as Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) maize have not yet been fully assessed in South Africa. Bt maize designed to express Bt endotoxin for control of Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is planted on approximately 1.103 million hectares in South Africa. The monitoring of GM crops after release is important in order to assess and evaluate possible environmental effects. No risk assessment for Bt maize was done in South Africa before its release in 1998 and no targeted post-release monitoring of possible resistance development or impact on non-target species have been done. Awareness has risen in South Africa through research highlighting the possible effects GM crops may have. The aim of this study was to determine, through feeding experiments, the effects of Bt maize on selected non-target Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera species that occur in maize agro-ecosystems in South Africa. Results provide information for use in future risk assessment studies on Bt maize and indicate which species could possibly be of importance in post-release monitoring of Bt maize. Priority insect species were identified and laboratory- and semifield experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of Bt maize on these species. In the light of the reportedly lower toxicity of Bt maize to certain noctuid borers, the effect of Bt maize was evaluated on Sesamia calamistis (Hampson), Agrotis segetum (Denis & Schiffermüller), and Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner). Feeding studies were also conducted to determine the effect of Bt maize on non-target Coleoptera, i.e. Heteronychus arator Fabricius (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and Somaticus angulatus (Fahraeus) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). The effect of indirect exposure of the stem borer parasitoid Sturmiopsis parasitica (Curran) (Diptera: Tachinidae) to Bt toxin was evaluated to determine if there is any effect when it parasitizes Bt-resistant B. fusca larvae that have fed on Bt maize. Results from the study conducted with S. calamistis indicated that Bt maize of both events (Bt11 and MON810) were highly toxic to S. calamistis. The behavioural characteristic of S. calamistis to feed behind leaf sheaths and to enter stems directly did not result in escape of exposure to the toxin. Larval feeding on leaf sheaths therefore resulted in the ingestion of sufficient toxin to kill larvae before they entered maize stems. Results showed that the effect of Cry1Ab toxin on the biology of A. segetum larvae and moths were largely insignificant. Whorl leaves were observed to be an unsuitable food source for H. armigera larvae and larval growth was poor. No larvae survived to the pupal stage on any of the Bt maize treatments. When feeding on maize ears H. armigera larval mass increased on non-Bt maize whereas no increase occurred on Bt maize. The feeding study conducted with Coleoptera showed that the effect of Bt maize on H. arator and S. angulatus was insignificant and no differences were observed in any of the parameters measured for the two species. Although not always significant, the percentage parasitism of Bt-consuming host larvae by S. parasitica was always higher compared to host larvae that fed on non-Bt maize. It could be that Bt toxin affects B. fusca fitness to such an extent that the immune systems of host larvae were less effective. The different parameters tested for S. parasitica indicated only one case where fly maggots originating from diapause host larvae feeding on non-Bt maize had a greater mass compared to host larvae that fed on Bt maize. The same applied to S. parasitica pupal length. For other parameters tested there were no significant differences. Sesamia calamistis is stenophagous and occurs in mixed populations with other borer species. It was therefore concluded that the ecological impact of local extinctions of S. calamistis caused by Bt maize is not expected to be great. Bt maize will most likely not have any significant effect on the control of A. segetum under field conditions. The feeding study conducted with H. armigera quantified the effects of Bt maize on this species and provided important information on the potential of Bt maize as protection against this polyphagous pest. However, the likelihood of H. armigera becoming an important secondary pest is high. It can be concluded that the Cry1Ab toxin targeting lepidopteran pests will not have adverse effects on H. arator or S. angulatus. Although some adverse effects were observed on S. parasitica mass and pupal length it is most likely that this will not contribute to adverse effects in the field, but that there rather be synergism between Bt maize and S. parasitica. An ecological approach was followed in which the potential effects of exposure of priority species to Bt toxin in maize was investigated. A series of selection matrixes were developed in which each of the above mentioned species was ranked for its maximum potential exposure to Bt toxin by assessing it occurrence, abundance, presence and linkage in the maize ecosystem. Through the use of these selection matrixes, knowledge gaps were identified for future research and to guide the design of ecologically realistic experiments. This study contributes to knowledge regarding the possible effects of Bt maize on the most economically important non-target pests in South Africa. There is, however, a need to evaluate other non-target species in feeding studies, as well as in field studies. From this study it can be concluded that some species can be eliminated from further testing since Bt maize had no adverse effect while more research have to be conducted on other species. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Environmental Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.