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Securing universal, safe, inclusive and affordable water and sanitation services, as targeted by SDG 6, is a challenge for urban settings. Particularly in informal settlements of Mukuru, Nairobi, were its crowded population, insecure land tenure and location in areas prone to environmental hazards places their inhabitants at greater risk of water and sanitation insecurity. Policy and research approaches to measure water and sanitation insecurity lack of a standard tool to assess the multiple dimensions that account for inequalities at the individual level. This study aimed to assess individual water and sanitation insecurity at Mukuru SPA. A novel 21 item insecurity scale was developed addressing water and sanitation availability, accessibility, affordability, perceived water quality, inadequate sanitation and hygiene. Three segments of the Mukuru SPA were selected. Data was collected from 302 individuals through a household survey. Statistical analysis was performed with SAS University software to identify water and sanitation conditions in the area, measure levels of water and sanitation insecurity, examine associations of insecurity levels and socio-economic characteristics and test the validity of the tool. Results indicated that most residents used water sources and sanitation facilities considered improved by global monitoring standards. Nonetheless, more than 50% of the residents of two of the studied segments had higher levels of water and sanitation insecurity. Individuals that were females, belonged to the lowest income ranges or that resided in young female or young male (<18 years old) headed-household were found more vulnerable to water and sanitation insecurity. Significant correlations of water and sanitation insecurity with time spent collecting water and sanitation cost/day, as well as correlations with number of trips to collect water and water cost/day validated the use of the tool. / Att borga för universella, säkra, inkluderande och prisvärda vatten- och sanitetstjänster, som riktas mot SDG 6 (Sustainable Development Goal), är en utmaning inom urbana miljöer. Särskilt i de informella, överbefolkade bosättningarna i Mukuru, Nairobi, belägna i förorenade och utsatta områden med oklara ägarförhållanden av marken, utsätts invånarna för ökade sanitära risker kopplade till vattenkvaliteten. Policy- och forskningsmetoder för att mäta vatten-och sanitetssäkerhet saknar ett standardverktyg för att bedöma de många dimensioner som orsakas av ojämlikhet på individnivå. Denna studie syftade till att bedöma individuell vatten- och sanitet osäkerhet hos Mukuru SPA (Special Planning Area). Baserat på 21 punkter har en ny vatten- och sanitet osäkerhetsskala utvecklats för att undersöka tillgänglighet, tillgång, överkomlighet, upplevd vattenkvalitet, sanitet och hygien. Tre områden av Mukuru SPA valdes. Data samlades in från 302 individer genom en enkätundersökning riktad till hushåll. En statistisk analys utfördes med hjälp av SAS University-programvara för att identifiera vatten och sanitetsförhållanden i området, mäta nivåer av vatten- och sanitet osäkerhet, undersöka kopplingar mellan graden av sårbarhet och socioekonomiska förhållanden, samt testa verktygets validitet. Resultaten visar att de flesta boende använde vattenkällor och sanitetsinstallationer vilka anses ha förbättrats med hjälp av internationella övervakningsstandarder. Detta till trots hade mer än 50% av invånarna i två av de studerade områdena höga nivåer av vatten och sanitet osäkerhet. Kvinnor, tillhörande de områden där medelinkomsten var lägst, boende i hushåll med en ung man eller kvinna (<18 år gamla) som “husbonde”, visade sig mest sårbara för vatten- och sanitet osäkerhet. Tydliga samband mellan vatten-och sanitet osäkerhet och kostnad per dag och tid för att hämta vatten, samt korrelation mellan antal resor för att hämta vatten och vattenkostnad per dag, validerar användningen av verktyget. Verktyget kan hjälpa lokala myndigheter att snabbt överblicka vatten-och sanitation osäkerhet och rikta resurser mot de mest sårbara personerna inför de planerade satsningarna på höjd levnadsstandard i Mukuru SPA. Det är önskvärt att ta hänsyn till de olika behov som könsskillnad medför, såväl som att säkerställa kostnadsmässigt överkomliga vatten- och sanitetstjänster för de mest sårbara grupperna i Mukuru SPA. Ett vattenprov bör åtfölja användningen av verktyget för att förstärka tillförlitligheten i mätningar av vattensäkerhet.

The purpose of this dissertation is to prompt ecclesial imagination for the sake of envisioning and reshaping contemporary ecclesiology and church practice in more liberative forms. The thesis is that non-dominant theologies and historical narratives are sources that prompt ecclesial imagination and can potentially reshape ecclesiology and church practice. *Feminist Ecclesiology and a Liberating Counterhistory analyzes and interprets two such non-dominant sources in two case studies: *feminist ecclesiological writing on the church from the 1968 to 2020, and the archeological evidence of ancient Iron Age I Hebrew highland settlements, which pre-date biblical narratives and support a counter-narrative to conquest, namely a non-militaristic response to empire and societal collapse. This dissertation utilizes the term *feminist to indicate the full range of white feminist, womanist, mujerista, Latin American, African, and Asian women’s ecclesiologies. The asterisk is meant to disrupt the totalizing tendency of the generic term feminist to imply only white feminist perspectives. The review of literature and textual analysis of *feminist ecclesiological discourses reveal four prominent conceptual themes, identified as four marks of the *feminist church: holistic, incarnate, utopic, and apostolic. The study of the highland settlements focuses on archeological findings, such as Iron Age I pottery, building foundations, and other material artifacts. A *feminist analysis of the settlements uncovers a liberative counterhistory that contrasts with genocidal and militaristic narrations of the origins of the Hebrew people in Canaan, such as found in Joshua 1-11. Although the two case studies are drawn across great expanses of time and in different cultural settings, a close look reveals important resonances that make them a congruent pairing, albeit unexpected. Individually, they have much to offer towards ecclesial imagination. Interpreted together, the two cases are grounded in the depths of historical tradition, and offer nuanced critiques and imagination for the present, while simultaneously reaching towards an alternative future. The dissertation concludes with integrative insights that demonstrate how the highland settlement evidence can augment the *feminist marks of the church. Building upon these discoveries, the final chapter offers five principles of practice, suggesting ways that the cases and their integrative interpretation can prompt ecclesial imagination and practices for the future church.

“We are neither living nor dying, we are something in between” Since the beginning of history, the living and the dead have been separated. This has made it almost im- possible to co-live together under one roof. We, ‘the living’, have even created “deathscapes” which have set a clear boundary between us and them, ‘the dead’. In every society, with its own cultural norms and rituals, they act with the dead in their own way - some are buried, others are burnt, but what is common across all societies is that they are not evident in our lives anymore. Looking at it from an urban perspective, the dead occupy a big patch of land in every city. This acts as a burden, as it makes “forbidden spaces” where the living is not able to be part of it. However, in each topic, there is a lesson that can be learned from it. In this case, it’s a 6km stretch informally and formally built, with a rich history and poor squatters who have no choice except to dwell with the dead. This is City of the Dead, located in Cairo, Egypt. The extreme lack of housing has pushed a part of society to live informally in cemeteries, where they have learned to co-live in the same room as the dead; they’ve embraced the idea of sleeping next to the dead, working and playing on those deathscapes. But ever since the government announced that they will demolish those deathscapes as a part of demolishing all informal settlements in Cairo, the time has come to make a stand against this decision, instead learning from their “life hack” and applying it throughout the City of the Dead – creating a society where the dead and living are not separated, maximizing the lost potentials in cases such as City of the Dead and making them not looked down upon and marginalized. This thesis aims to design the city and improve the lives of people living in these cemeteries, dealing with each case with care and compassion.

Informal settlements are a relatively new phenomenon in Yemen, first documented in the 1980s (El-Shorbagi, 2008; 2007). They have since grown at a very rapid rate. Sana'a City, the nation's capital, alone has an estimated 35 informal settlements that together contain 20.5 percent of that urban center's population (El-Shorbagi, 2008; 2007). To date, the Yemeni government has paid limited attention to informal settlements. The government has not developed any specific planning policies to address their needs, partly due to meager resources and professional capacities, and partly as a consequence of conflicting (and higher priority) needs (World Bank, 2010a). The unchecked growth of informal settlements has alarmed local and national authorities as well as international organizations and recently caused officials in these entities to begin to consider seriously how to address this new community reality. This dissertation explores the engagement of state and non-state actors in informal settlement governance in Sana'a. The analysis offered here employs Mahwa Aser, the largest and most controversial informal settlement in Sana'a, as an exemplar for a broader set of concerns for all of Sana'a\s informal communities. The dissertation provides a nuanced portrait of Yemeni government capacities, policies, and practices related to Sana'a's informal settlements generally and to Mahwa Aser particularly via the perspectives and activities of multiple stakeholders, including, importantly, the community's residents. It explores the active governance roles of non-governmental and international organizations seeking to provide services in these communities as well. It also explores ways to build informal community residents' capacities to work with government and with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), and international governmental organizations (IGOs) to address their many basic needs. The analysis draws on personal interviews with key stakeholders, including long-time residents of Mahwa Aser, responsible government officials, and relevant leaders of NGOs, INGOs, and IGOs in Yemen, U.S.A., and Egypt. The author also examined government and international organization reports and documents to gain insight into the governance challenges linked to continued growth of informal communities in Yemen. The study identifies a number of factors that have led to worsening living conditions in Mahwa Aser and other informal settlements in Sana'a. Taken together they suggest the Yemeni government and its partners may need to work far more self-consciously with informal community residents to establish shared goals and clear expectations. Those entities engaged collectively in governing these communities in Sana'a and in Yemen more generally will need to develop reliable policies and coherent programs within a transparent governance framework if the very difficult living conditions in such communities are to be improved. In particular, governance actors will need to devise ways and means to develop government capacities and resources even as they work to address community infrastructure and service needs in a sometimes daunting socio-cultural and economic context. / Ph. D.

A review of archaeometallurgical studies carried out in the 1980s and 1990s of early medieval (c. AD410-1100) iron knives revealed several patterns, with clear differences in knife manufacturing techniques present in rural cemeteries and later urban settlements. The main aim of this research is to investigate these patterns and to gain an overall understanding of the early medieval iron industry. This study has increased the number of knives analysed from a wide spectrum of sites across England, Scotland and Ireland. Knives were selected for analysis based on x-radiographs and contextual details. Sections were removed for more detailed archaeometallurgical analysis. The analysis revealed a clear change through time, with a standardisation in manufacturing techniques in the 7th century and differences between the quality of urban and rural knives. Analysis of cemetery knives revealed that there was some correlation between the knife and the deceased. Comparison of knives from England, Dublin and Europe revealed that the Vikings had little direct impact on England¿s knife manufacturing industry, although there was a change in manufacturing methods in the 10th century towards the mass produced sandwich welded knife. This study also suggests that Irish blacksmiths in Dublin continued their ¿native¿ blacksmithing techniques after the Vikings arrived. Using the data gathered a chaîne opértoire of the iron knife was re-constructed, this revealed that there was a specific order to the manufacture process and decisions were not only influenced by the cost of raw materials, the skill of the blacksmith and the consumer status, but also by cultural stimulus.

The research contained in these papers embodies both results from direct archaeological investigation and also the development of techniques (geophysical, chronological and geoarchaeological) in order to understand long-term settlements and their associated landscapes in Orkney and Shetland. Central to this research has been the study of soil management strategies of arable plots surrounding settlements from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. It is argued that this arable system provides higher yields in marginal locations. The ability to enhance yield in good years and to store surplus can mitigate against shortage. Control and storage of this surplus is seen as one catalyst for the economic power of elite groups over their underlying or ¿client¿ population. The emergence of a social elite in the Iron Age, building brochs and other substantial roundhouses of near broch proportions, is seen as being linked to the control of resources. Evidence at the site of Old Scatness indicated that there was a continuity of wealth and power from the Middle Iron Age through the Pictish period, before the appearance of the Vikings produced a break in the archaeological record. The Viking period saw a break in building traditions, the introduction of new artefacts and changes in farming and fishing strategies. Each of the papers represents a contribution that builds on these themes.

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