This study investigated the factors that shaped students' choices of training programs in two technical colleges in Kenya. The purpose of the study was to determine the nature of the students reasoning with regards to their decisions about enrolling in particular training programs. It also highlights how the students deal with the pressures from their parents, peers, and the community at large, to conform to their 'gender expected' program choices. The expectations of Kenyan society have been that female students would choose programs within the female dominated fields of secretarial, food and beverage, and clothing technology. The expected programs for male students have been in the male dominated fields of engineering and building trades. The study showed that program choices for girls differed from those of boys irrespective of the type of school the students attended. The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methodology. Ethnographic techniques were used to analyze the participants experiences obtained through conversation like interviews. Chi square tests and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the enrollment records obtained from the participating colleges. The participants included 39 students and 4 Heads of Departments from the two participating colleges, College A and College B. There were 14 female and 7 male students enrolled in traditionally female programs, and 9 male and 9 female students enrolled in traditionally male programs. For each college, one head of a department with predominantly female programs and one from a department with predominantly male programs participated in the study. All the participants were interviewed within their college. The interviews focused on the participants' individual experiences related to their choices of training programs. The interviews with the Heads of Departments also looked at the relationship between the government guidelines on student enrollment and the actual criteria used by the colleges to select the students for different programs within each college. All the interviews were audio taped. The students indicated that their choices were moderated by factors within the homes they came from, the schools they attended, the society at large, and the world of work. Factors within the homes included gender related socialization, and parental pressure for the students to choose the programs that the parents wanted them to choose. The major factors within the schools the students attended included lack of career guidance, the school facilities, and lack of role models for the students to emulate. The main factors that were related to the society at large were the general expectations that the students would choose "gender appropriate programs. It was interesting to note that the students placed an emphasis on their perception of the expectations of their potential future spouses. The main factors related to the world of work were the availability of employment in particular careers, and the students' perception of the gender biases that the employers might have when recruiting workers for different types of jobs. / Education, Faculty of / Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of / Graduate

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It is the purpose of this study to determine if there is any significant difference in teacher ratings of boys and girls of equal achievement. If such differences are found to exist, an attempt will be made to explain the causes for such differences.

Female students are found to have much higher English achievement and most of the learning process parameters, including Formal Motivation Intensity, opinion on MOI (medium of instruction) in English lessons, attitude of interest, attitude of essential, attitude towards bilingualism, motivation for learning English, Instrumental Orientation and Communicative Orientation. / Girls out-performed boys in reading at the age of 15 in all 43 countries included in a credible study by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and UNESCO. Male underachievement generally alarms educators. In Hong Kong, proficiency in English language more or less assures a better future, higher academic path and job security. Is there any sex difference in English language achievement in secondary three? If so, what are the factors and causes in the learning process responsible for this difference? / In accordance with the above findings, it is suggested that more effort should be put to stimulate boys to establish their learning goals, to arouse their interest and develop positive attitudes towards learning English; to activate their intrinsic motivation for learning English. Interventions at policy level are needed. / In the causal relations between English achievement and learning process parameters, female and male students show significant differences. The causal path from Motivation to S3 English Achievement is 0.43 (t-value = 34.52) in females and 0.37 (t-value = 28.65) in males. It means when controlling Motivation, females can have higher achievement in S3 English. The causal path from Instrumental Orientation to Motivation is 0.67 (t-value=31.80) in females and 0.79 (t-value=29.33) in males. The causal path from Communicative Orientation to Motivation is 0.40 (t-value=20.32) in females and 0.27 (t-value=10.72) in males. It also means that when controlling Instrumental Orientation, male students can have higher Motivation of learning English. If Communicative Orientation is controlled, female students can have higher Motivation of learning English. / The present study aims at exploring the sex differences in English learning achievement, and in the learning process parameters in secondary 3. Gardner's socio-educational model serves as the theoretical model for multi-causal path analysis. The English learning achievement is related to motivation and then to learning orientations. According to local researches about English learning, Instrumental Orientation is added to Gardner's model for multi-group comparison. / The total effect from Instrumental Orientation to S3 English achievement is 0.13 (t-value=11.69) in females and 0.05 (t-value=4.24) in males. Total effect from Communicative Orientation to S3 English achievement is 0.08 (t-value=9.68) in females, and 0.02 (t-value=3.87) in males. / Fung Kam Yin. / "November 2006." / Adviser: Tsang Wing Kwong. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 68-08, Section: A, page: 3277. / Thesis (Ed.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 357-378). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract in English and Chinese. / School code: 1307.

by Vivian Mo-yin Cheng. / Added t.p. in Chinese and English. / Thesis (M.A.Ed.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1992. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 89-94). / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.i / ABSTRACT --- p.ii / LIST OF TABLES --- p.iv / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.v / LIST OF APPENDICES --- p.v / CHAPTER / Chapter I. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.2 / Purpose of the Study --- p.2 / Significance of the Study --- p.3 / Chapter II. --- REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE --- p.5 / Sex differences --- p.5 / Sex-stereotypes --- p.8 / Sex-role Orientation --- p.14 / Expectancy-value Model --- p.19 / Chapter III. --- METHOD --- p.22 / Study Overview --- p.22 / Subjects --- p.22 / Procedure --- p.23 / Measures of --- p.25 / Academic Choice --- p.25 / Acheivement Motives --- p.26 / Sex-stereotypes --- p.29 / Sex-role Orientation --- p.34 / Past School Performances --- p.39 / Research Hypotheses --- p.42 / Data Analyses --- p.43 / Chapter IV. --- RESULTS --- p.47 / Sex-related differences --- p.47 / Effects of Sex-role Orientation --- p.50 / Effects of Sex-stereotypes --- p.54 / Path Model for Academic Choice --- p.56 / Chapter V. --- DISCUSSION --- p.61 / Summary of Findings --- p.61 / Implication of Findings --- p.62 / Further discussion on Sex-role Orientation --- p.68 / Directions for future research trend --- p.72 / Limitations of the study --- p.74 / APPENDICES --- p.76 / REFERENCES --- p.89

Yam Yin Kat. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 46-49). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 2 --- Data --- p.4 / Chapter 3 --- Gender and Birth Order of Children --- p.7 / Chapter 3.1 --- Hypothesis Development --- p.7 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- Gender Discrimination --- p.7 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- Birth Order --- p.12 / Chapter 3.2 --- Results on Gender Bias --- p.14 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Overall Results --- p.15 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Gender Bias in Rural versus Urban Area --- p.18 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Household Characteristics and Gender Bias --- p.19 / Chapter 3.3 --- Birth Order Effect --- p.22 / Chapter 4 --- Number of Children --- p.25 / Chapter 4.1 --- Hypothesis and Empirical Strategy --- p.25 / Chapter 4.2 --- Results --- p.30 / Chapter 5 --- Conclusion --- p.33 / Tables --- p.35 / References --- p.46

這項研究的目的旨在探討香港15歲學生在科學素養上的性別差異及這些差異如何影響男女生在選擇以科學作為升學及職業的動機。 / 本研究的數據取自2006年在本港舉行的香港學生能力國際評估計劃(Programme for International Student Assessment)。該計劃的4645學生樣本取自146所學校，包括：官立、資助及私立學校，以兩階段分層隨機抽樣的方法選取。 / 學生能力國際評估計劃如其他大型國際評估一樣，其評估框架採用多維試題架構。本研究採用配合該試題架構及樣本結構的多維試題功能（MDIF）及多層中介變項（MLM）兩個研究方法，去了解15歲男女學生在科學素養(認知和情感)上的性別差異及這些差異如何影響男女生在選擇以科學作為升學及職業的動機。比較常用的均差t-檢定，MDIF具備提高各次級量尺的精確度特質，因而可以更有效和準確地計算出男女學生在科學素養上的性別差異。MLM則以Eccles (1983) 的成功期望價值理論為學理基礎去分析和了解這些性別差異如何影響男女生在選取與科學相關的升學途徑和擇業的動機。 / 要完成MLM的研究，我們必須先使用單組驗證性因子分析(Single-Group CFA)驗證經濟合作與發展組織(OECD)所建構的六項情意因素，包括：「科學上的自我概念」、「科學的個人價值」、「科學的興趣」、「對科學的喜好」、「學習科學的工具性動機」和「將來工作而學習科學的動機」，以便了解使用這些源自西方社會的情意因素在本土研究的可行性及效度。接着使用本土數據去調整這六項情意因素結構。最後利用多組驗證性因子分析(Multiple-Group CFA)去確定這些因素結構對男女生是否都適用(即測量等同檢驗Measurement Invariance Test)。 / 由單組驗證性因子分析結果得知，六項情意因素，除了要對「科學的興趣」因素作較大幅度的修改外，其他五項因素都具有良好的心理測量特性。而多組驗證性因子分析的結果亦顯示，六項情意因素都能通過測量等同檢驗，亦即這六項因素結構對男女生都適用。 / 研究結果顯示除了「鑑定形成科學議題」能力外，本港15歲的男生在「解釋科學現象」及「科學證」等科學認知層面上優於女生。在科學情意發展上，男生比女生亦有更好的發展，其效應值(effect size)更高於認知層面。 / MLM的研究結果與Eccles的成功期望價值理論預測結果吻合，也就是說，男女生在面向未來升學選科和擇業動機上呈現明顯的性別差異，而這些差異主要是透過情意因素(中介變項)間接影響男女生的選擇意向。就這些因素而言，女生在選取科學作為未來升學途徑和職業動機明顯地較男生為弱。 / 整體而言，驗證性因子分析結果和MLM的研究結果支持源自西方社會的Eccles成功期望價值理論具備跨文化效度，在香港華人社會的研究結果與西方結果基本吻合。 / 最後，本文作者將根據本研究的結果，向科學教育的工作者、教師、父母、課程發展人員、政策的制定者和考核機構提供一些可行的建議，希望藉此改善香港男女生在科學生涯規劃上的性別差異。 / The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of gender differences of 15-year-old students on scientific literacy and their impacts on students' motivation to pursue science education and careers (Future-oriented Science Motivation) in Hong Kong. / The data for this study was collected from the Program for International Student Assessment in Hong Kong (HKPISA). It was carried out in 2006. A total of 4,645 students were randomly selected from 146 secondary schools including government, aided and private schools by two-stage stratified sampling method for the assessment. / HKPISA 2006, like most of other large-scale international assessments, presents its assessment frameworks in multidimensional subscales. To fulfill the requirements of this multidimensional assessment framework, this study deployed new approaches to model and investigate gender differences in cognitive and affective latent traits of scientific literacy by using multidimensional differential item functioning (MDIF) and multilevel mediation (MLM). Compared with mean score difference t-test, MDIF improves the precision of each subscales measure at item level and the gender differences in science performance can be accurately estimated. In the light of Eccles et al (1983) Expectancy-value Model of Achievement-related Choices (Eccles' Model), MLM examines the pattern of gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation mediated through cognitive and affective factors. / As for MLM investigation, Single-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Single-Group CFA) was used to confirm the applicability and validity of six affective factors which was, originally prepared by OECD. These six factors are Science Self-concept, Personal Value of Science, Interest in Science Learning, Enjoyment of Science Learning, Instrumental Motivation to Learn Science and Future-oriented Science Motivation. Then, Multiple Group CFA was used to verify measurement invariance of these factors across gender groups. / The results of Single-Group CFA confirmed that five out of the six affective factors except Interest in Science Learning had strong psychometric properties in the context of Hong Kong. Multiple-group CFA results also confirmed measurement invariance of these factors across gender groups. / The findings of this study suggest that 15-year-old school boys consistently outperformed girls in most of the cognitive dimensions except identifying scientific issues. Similarly, boys have higher affective learning outcomes than girls. The effect sizes of gender differences in affective learning outcomes are relatively larger than that of cognitive one. / The MLM study reveals that gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation mediate through affective factors including Science Self-concept, Enjoyment of Science Learning, Interest in Science Learning, Instrumental Motivation to Learn Science and Personal Value of Science. Girls are significantly affected by the negative impacts of these mediating factors and thus Future-oriented Science Motivation. The MLM results were consistent with the predications by Eccles' Model. / Overall, the CFA and MLM results provide strong support for cross-cultural validity of Eccles’ Model. In light of our findings, recommendations to reduce the gender differences in science achievement and Future-oriented Science Motivation are made for science education participants, teachers, parents, curriculum leaders, examination bodies and policy makers. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Wong, Kwan Yin. / Thesis (Ed.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 158-182). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese. / ABSTRACT --- p.i / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.v / TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.vi / LIST OF TABLES --- p.xi / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xiii / ABBREVIATIONS --- p.xiv / Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- INTRODUCTION / Chapter 1.1 --- Background of the study --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Gender-equity in global content of education --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Gender differences in science performance and affective learning --- p.8 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Gender differences in variability of science performance --- p.11 / Chapter 1.1.4 --- PISA background --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2 --- Weaknesses of previous gender studies --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Weaknesses of measurement models based on total score --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Weaknesses of unidimensional measurement models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Strength of multidimensional IRT models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Strength of multilevel models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.3 --- Research questions --- p.16 / Chapter 1.4 --- Significance of the study --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- For gender-equity educational policies in Hong Kong --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- For local economic growth --- p.18 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- For gender-inclusive science curriculums, assessments & teachers' training --- p.19 / Chapter 1.4.4 --- For academic discourse in gender-equity --- p.20 / Chapter 1.5 --- Structure of the thesis --- p.20 / Chapter 1.6 --- Summary --- p.21 / Chapter CHAPTER TWO --- LITERATURE REVIEW / Chapter 2.1 --- Defining scientific literacy by historical review --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Cognitive domain of scientific literacy --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Affective domain of scientific literacy --- p.30 / Chapter 2.1.2.1 --- Taxonomy of affective domain elements in science education --- p.30 / Chapter 2.1.2.2 --- Science self-concept --- p.31 / Chapter 2.1.2.3 --- Motivation in science learning --- p.31 / Chapter 2.2 --- Gender differences in scientific literacy --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Defining gender: the nature versus nurture debate --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Gender differences in cognitive learning outcomes --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Gender differences in affective learning outcomes --- p.38 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Gender differences in science educational and occupational choices --- p.40 / Chapter 2.3 --- Factors attributing gender differences --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Biological contributions --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1.1 --- Evolutionary psychology perspectives --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1.2 --- Brain structural perspectives --- p.45 / Chapter 2.3.1.3 --- Brain functional perspectives --- p.45 / Chapter 2.3.1.4 --- Hormonal perspectives --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Sociocultural contributions --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Gender-role --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Schooling and family conditions --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Item characteristics attributing to gender differences --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.3.1 --- Scientific content --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.3.2 --- Item format --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Expectancy-value model of achievement-related choices in science --- p.50 / Chapter 2.3.4.1 --- Self-concept of ability as mediator of gendered choices --- p.51 / Chapter 2.3.4.2 --- Subjective task values as mediators of gendered choices --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4 --- Local research on gender differences in scientific literacy . --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Gender differences in science performance --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Gender differences in affective domain --- p.56 / Chapter 2.5 --- Summary --- p.57 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS / Chapter 3.1 --- PISA 2006 database --- p.58 / Chapter 3.2 --- Conceptual framework of present study --- p.60 / Chapter 3.3 --- Conceptualization and operationalization of scientific literacy --- p.62 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Cognitive domain --- p.61 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Affective domain --- p.63 / Chapter 3.3.2.1 --- Science Self-concept --- p.65 / Chapter 3.3.2.2 --- Personal Value of Science --- p.67 / Chapter 3.3.2.3 --- Interest and Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.68 / Chapter 3.3.2.4 --- Motivation to Learn Science --- p.72 / Chapter 3.4 --- Conceptualization and operationalization of Parental SES --- p.74 / Chapter 3.5 --- Multidimensional Differential Item Functioning (MDIF) --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- The item response (IRT) model --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.1.1 --- DIF model for gender differences studies --- p.77 / Chapter 3.5.1.2 --- Effect size by DIF --- p.79 / Chapter 3.5.1.3 --- Item fit statistics --- p.79 / Chapter 3.6 --- Model testing in SEM . --- p.80 / Chapter 3.7 --- Summary --- p.80 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS’ COGNITIVE & AFFECTIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES / Chapter 4.1 --- Gender differences in students' cognitive outcomes --- p.81 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions --- p.81 / Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions measured by MSD --- p.82 / Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions measured by MDIF --- p.84 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- Gender differences in content domains --- p.86 / Chapter 4.1.2.1 --- Gender differences in content domains measured by MSD --- p.86 / Chapter 4.1.2.2 --- Gender differences in content domains measured by MDIF --- p.87 / Chapter 4.1.3 --- Gender differences in item formats --- p.89 / Chapter 4.1.4 --- Gender variability in science performance --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1.4.1 --- Gender variability measured by variance ratio (B/G) --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1.4.2 --- Gender variability measured by number of students against each ability estimate --- p.92 / Chapter 4.2 --- Gender differences in students' affective learning outcomes measured by MSD --- p.95 / Chapter 4.3 --- Gender differences in science achievement related choices measured by MSD . --- p.98 / Chapter 4.4 --- Gender differences in students' affective learning outcomes measured by DIF --- p.99 / Chapter 4.5 --- Gender differences in science achievement related choices measured by DIF --- p.100 / Chapter 4.6 --- Summary --- p.101 / Chapter CHAPTER FIVE --- THE FINDINGS BY EXPECTANCY-VALUE MODEL OF ACHIEVEMENT-RELATED CHOICES / Chapter 5.1 --- Pearson correlations between affective factors and gender --- p.104 / Chapter 5.2 --- Gender differences by revised Expectancy-value Model --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- Grouping homogeneity --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- Mediation effect of Science Performance --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- Mediation effect of Science Self-concept --- p.109 / Chapter 5.2.4 --- Mediation effect of Interest in Science Learning --- p.112 / Chapter 5.2.5 --- Mediation effect of Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.113 / Chapter 5.2.6 --- Mediation effect of Interest and Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.116 / Chapter 5.2.7 --- Mediation effect of Attainment Value --- p.117 / Chapter 5.2.8 --- Mediation effect of Utility Value --- p.119 / Chapter 5.2.9 --- Mediation through Attainment Value and Utility Value --- p.121 / Chapter 5.2.10 --- Full models of gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation --- p.122 / Chapter 5.3 --- Summary --- p.126 / Chapter CHAPTER SIX --- CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS / Chapter 6.1 --- Database and data analysis --- p.129 / Chapter 6.2 --- Major findings --- p.130 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Multidimensional DIF model --- p.130 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- Multilevel Mediation using Expectancy-Value Model --- p.134 / Chapter 6.3 --- Revisiting conceptual model --- p.137 / Chapter 6.4 --- Implications for policy and practice --- p.139 / Chapter 6.4.1 --- Implications for policy makers --- p.139 / Chapter 6.4.2 --- Implications for school administrators, teachers and textbook authors --- p.140 / Chapter 6.4.3 --- Implications for parents and students --- p.140 / Chapter 6.5 --- Limitations and recommendations for future research --- p.143 / Chapter 6.5.1 --- Limitations of the study --- p.143 / Chapter 6.5.2 --- Recommendations for future research --- p.144 / Chapter Appendix A --- Handling missing values --- p.146 / Chapter Appendix B --- Booklet effects --- p.149 / Chapter Appendix C --- Wright map for science performance dimensions --- p.151 / Chapter Appendix D --- Gender differences in scientific performance measured by MDIF --- p.152 / References --- p.158